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Humans used to be hunters and gatherers for 2.5m years, they plucked wild fruits and hunted wild animals as they traveled. It all changed about 10,000 years ago, when they started to influence the lives of selected wild plant and animal species for their benefit. The transition from nomadic to agriculture proceeded in a stage which involved just a small change in daily life over a generation.

What changes?

Presently, agriculture is one of the main occupations in the course of human civilization, which is the origin of the first crop to the society known today. In the long run, people started living together for agriculture practices. Availability of enough food and protection in a society helps in further population growth within the community. Use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers lead to maximum crop production, which helped in reducing hunger but this manipulation altered the whole ecosystems, resulting in habitat destruction, decline in biodiversity, soil fertility and nutrient depletion.

As the human population is increasing, demand for food is also increasing and intensive methods of farming eventually are escalating. This results in decrease of useful crop pest predators and thus rise in pest outbreaks. These intensive modern agriculture practices lead to deterioration of the natural habitat and biodiversity of numerous plants and animals. The use of pesticides kills the keystone species, which agitate the ecosystem and risk millions of important species up the food chain.

Chemical pesticides have been used as a traditional method for pest and disease control. However, it impacts negatively on biodiversity, crop quality and human health. Alternatively, use of biological pest regulation instead of pesticides is the best solution in recent scenarios.

Biological pest regulation maintains its population under the limit over time. Until now, biological pest regulation mainly focuses on manipulating the behavior of pests and arthropods (natural predator). Approaches like using pheromones (chemical signals that insects release to communicate), disrupt their mating and changing foraging sites have shown success. However, arthropods as a predator, mobility is not so much, indicating this method is effective in specific areas only where these predators are present. While arthropods as predators are effective bioregulators, including specific species of reptiles and amphibians into this approach can improve the regulation of pest populations. Utilizing arthropods, along with reptiles and amphibians significantly helps in bioregulation of pests.

Amphibians and reptiles can survive in a disturbed habitat and use different resources. While hunting, predators consider the characteristics of the prey, such as what they eat, how they move and how they behave in their environment. These characteristics reflect how predators prefer to hunt. For example: some actively search while others wait and ambush their prey.

Reptiles and amphibians use their visual and olfaction (sense of smell) to track and identify prey. The characteristic hunting process directs the sensory faculty either visual or olfactory. For example, lizards and some of the amphibians that are active foragers use their smell sensory while ambush foragers like some species of iguanas depend on their visual. In specific cases like oriental garden lizards, they wait for prey to come close, wait for the movement of the prey to capture. They don’t react if the prey doesn’t show any movement or release any chemicals by the prey.

According to foraging theory, active foragers prefer stationary prey having relatively large size and are widely distributed over area whereas ambush foragers catch mobile prey and prefer small size prey found in grouped distribution. Ambush foragers have broader prey as a diet than active foragers because the chance of capturing prey is less and they cannot be selective as active foragers.

Another interesting behavior of reptiles and amphibians is that they use the surrounding environment as information about the prey and protection from their predators. They can create a cognitive map (mental representation of the environmental reminder), which helps to guide in their home range, locating their spread-out prey without searching randomly every time.       

Active foragers are good at spatial learning since they have larger home ranges and are always in mobility, which require these skills more than ambush predators. While ambush predators spend less energy in searching for prey, they eventually change spots with abundances of food.

This information can help in the agricultural field, to mobilize active or ambush predators according to the nature of the pest, and the size of the agriculture farm.

Conclusion

Agriculture fields with active foragers are beneficial as they are good at scanning their environment and forming memories about pest-infested crops/areas. For them, spatial clues like natural habitats, trees help in locating prey more successfully. Meanwhile, ambush foragers use local cues like distinct shapes or natural rocks to find and remember hunting spots. Keeping crop patches in the same locations helps both active and ambush foragers to create authentic memories of their surroundings, making them easier to hunt.

Protecting and maintaining their habitats for breeding and hibernation is also important. Amphibians prefer small water bodies with warm and sunny aspects while reptiles favor open areas for warmth and vegetated areas for dwelling. Their habitats should connect so that the population gets easy access to each other for biological activities.  Maintaining habitat with dense vegetation for shelter, creating edges with different vegetations to add up habitat diversity, and maintaining different height shrubs will provide camouflage during different activities.

On Nov 15, Nepal marked a historic milestone by beginning to export 40 MW of electricity to Bangladesh via the Indian grid. This first-ever trilateral power transaction between Nepal, India, and Bangladesh symbolizes a significant step toward sub-regional power connectivity. In 2023, India announced its facilitation of this cooperation, setting the stage for broader regional energy trade. Currently, Nepal exports surplus hydroelectricity to the Indian market, and this agreement enables the export of electricity to Bangladesh, creating a foundation for future expansion.

Bangladesh has long expressed interest in investing in Nepal's hydropower projects and is now negotiating with Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) to import power generated by the 25 MW Trishuli and 22 MW Chilime hydropower projects. However, complexities arise from India’s policy of not purchasing electricity from hydropower projects involving Chinese investment. This forces Nepal to seek alternative markets, such as Bangladesh, for energy generated by China-linked projects. Over the past decade, India and China have vied to invest in Nepal’s hydropower sector, but India has established a dominant presence. While discussions between Nepal and China on a potential power trade agreement continue, tangible progress remains limited.

Nepal’s hydropower sector currently comprises 124 operational plants with a combined capacity of 2,600 MW, alongside 235 projects under construction. Presently generating approximately 2,700 MW, Nepal is projected to reach 10,000 MW within the next decade. Yet, inadequate transmission infrastructure hampers optimal utilization, with hydropower plants forced to scale down production during the monsoon. Remote hydropower projects remain disconnected from the national grid, compelling the government to prioritize transmission line construction.

The Ministry of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation has introduced an ambitious plan, the Energy Development Roadmap and Action Plan 2023–2035. This blueprint envisions meeting Nepal’s projected peak demand of 13,500 MW by 2035 while exporting 15,000 MW to India and Bangladesh. Achieving this target necessitates generating 28,500 MW of renewable energy within the timeframe. Both India and Bangladesh seek clean energy sources to meet growing demands, and Nepal’s abundant hydropower offers a sustainable solution.

Uncertainty surrounding Nepal’s electricity market persisted for years, but key agreements have fostered confidence. A pivotal moment came in January 2023, when Nepal and India signed a long-term energy agreement, with India committing to purchase 10,000 MW of electricity over the next decade. This agreement has spurred international investment interest in Nepal’s hydropower sector.

Earlier, in April 2022, Nepal and India signed a joint vision statement on power sector cooperation. This agreement highlighted joint hydropower development, cross-border transmission infrastructure, and bi-directional power trade. Both countries also pledged to expand collaboration under the BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal) framework, incorporating mutually beneficial terms. India’s quest for renewable energy aligns with its commitment to achieving net-zero emissions by 2070, positioning Nepal as a key energy partner. India has also deepened energy ties with Bhutan, exporting electricity and exploring new energy trade avenues.

Nepal has already started exporting surplus electricity to India during the monsoon, reaching nearly 1,000 MW in 2023. Power trade is seen as a vital means to reduce Nepal’s trade imbalance with India. Cross-border transmission lines, such as an 18-km link under the US Millennium Challenge Corporation's support, are crucial for enhancing energy trade. India is also assisting in constructing additional transmission infrastructure to strengthen bilateral energy connectivity.

Beyond India, Bangladesh is emerging as a promising energy market for Nepal. According to Bangladesh’s 2023 energy report, its total power consumption is 24,911 MW, with natural gas accounting for 45 percent, coal 11 percent, imports 11 percent, diesel 4 percent, furnace oil 26 percent, and hydropower contributing less than 1 percent. This dependency on fossil fuels highlights the need for clean energy, creating vast opportunities for cooperation with Nepal.

Other South Asian countries, such as Pakistan and Bhutan, also possess significant hydropower potential. Pakistan's estimated hydropower capacity is 60,000 MW, of which only 8,000 MW has been developed. Bhutan, with its long-standing energy partnership with India, demonstrates the feasibility of harnessing hydropower for regional benefit.

While bilateral agreements have gained traction, the prospect of a regional energy framework remains uncertain. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) signed a framework agreement on electricity cooperation in 2014, emphasizing regional power trade, energy efficiency, and conservation. However, strained relations between India and Pakistan have hindered progress. Similarly, BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) has shown potential. The fourth BIMSTEC Summit in Kathmandu in 2018 proposed forming an intergovernmental group to enhance energy cooperation, particularly in hydropower and renewables.

Recent developments, such as Nepal’s trilateral power trade agreement with India and Bangladesh, could serve as a model for broader regional collaboration. By overcoming geopolitical challenges and fostering synergy, South Asian countries can unlock the immense potential of renewable energy trade. A united effort can transform the region into a hub of sustainable energy, benefiting all stakeholders while addressing pressing environmental and economic challenges.

The Dhrupad Gurukul was established a decade ago in Kathmandu, Nepal, with a vision to preserve and promote the ancient tradition of Dhrupad, a form of classical music that has its origins in the Indian subcontinent. Under Vishal Bhattarai, a disciple of the renowned Gundecha brothers, and Inoue Sou, a dedicated artist and collaborator, the gurukul has become a key institution for the practice and teaching of Dhrupad in Nepal. It also provides a platform for students from diverse backgrounds, including the underprivileged.

“We started the gurukul to protect the deeply meditative and spiritual aspects of this music. Especially in Nepal, where this tradition is very limited, there was a need for an authentic space to learn and safeguard it,” he says.

Bhattarai, who trained in Dhrupad under the Gundecha brothers, has been actively performing and teaching this ancient form for more than 10 years. Mukesh Shakya, a group member is a talented pakhawaj player who learned under the legendary late Rabin Lal Shrestha, a prominent figure in Hindustani classical music. Shakya’s skill and dedication to the Dhrupad style have made him an invaluable member of the gurukul.

The gurukul also serves as a nurturing space for younger students, including Rajin Khadka, a flute player, and Keshav Badi, a differently-abled vocal student. Badi, who has been training at the gurukul since his early years, adds a unique dimension to the group’s work. His participation underscores the power of music to transcend barriers and touch the hearts of all, regardless of physical limitations.

“We have been teaching Keshav since his early years at the Disabled Service Association, and Rajin has been learning Dhrupad flute at our school for the past three years. Our shared dedication to this music and similar work ethic brought us together,” says Bhattarai. Khadka adds that Badi is talented, and they collaborate with him by focusing on communication and practicing with cues to ensure their coordination is smooth.

Dhrupad is a spiritual and meditative form of music with roots dating back to the Vedic chants of the Sama Veda. Dhrupad is not meant for entertainment. It’s for evoking inner peace and contemplation through sound. The gurukul wants to preserve a traditional form of music as well as make it accessible to younger generations.

“Some of the students come from underprivileged and challenging backgrounds and their parents have provided positive feedback, having observed how Dhrupad music has contributed not only to their children’s musical abilities but also to their emotional and spiritual growth,” says Bhattarai.

He believes that with the right guidance and dedication, the younger generation can come to appreciate and love it. “Some may like it, others may not, but for those who understand and embrace it, it becomes a lifelong love,” he says. 

Khadka says his goal is to keep learning and playing this beautiful music with his teachers (gurus) and to share it with others as much as possible and also to focus on connecting with modern audiences as well.

Khadka and Badi, both of whom have been at the gurukul for several years, represent the future of Dhrupad in Nepal. Badi, who faces physical challenges, is a testament to the fact that music transcends all boundaries. His vocal practice, along with Khadka’s flute playing, brings new life to the gurukul, allowing Dhrupad to evolve while staying true to its roots.

The gurukul has also made efforts to take Dhrupad beyond Nepal’s borders. Bhattarai and his team have performed internationally, sharing this ancient art with a broader audience. They see the potential for Dhrupad to connect with people worldwide, especially in today’s fast-paced digital world.

“For the young generation, Dhrupad offers a unique opportunity to connect with music at a deeper level. It’s a practice that requires patience, focus, and time, but the rewards are tenfold,” says Bhattarai. 

The future vision for Dhrupad Gurukul includes expanding its outreach, collaborating with other traditional music forms, and promoting cultural tourism. Bhattarai hopes that Dhrupad will gain international recognition, much like jazz, which shares the same core value of improvisation. “We believe Dhrupad is the ‘jazz’ of ancient music—it has improvisation at its core, just like jazz, but with a deeper spiritual essence,” he says. “Dhrupad is not just about music, it’s a form of worship, a way to connect with the universe and with our own inner selves.”

In a world increasingly dominated by technology and digital distractions, Bhattarai sees Dhrupad as an antidote to the noise of modern life. It offers listeners an opportunity to connect deeply with themselves. “In today’s world, pure traditional music like Dhrupad gives us the space to reflect, to meditate, and to reconnect with our inner selves,” he says.

Bhattrai stresses on the importance of training, discipline, and connecting with both modern and traditional audiences. Badi, as a differently-abled student at the gurukul, is not only an inspiring example of the inclusivity of Dhrupad, but also a testament to the universal power of music. “Music transcends all barriers,” says Bhattarai, “We hope that through this work, more people, regardless of their backgrounds or abilities, can find peace and fulfillment through Dhrupad.”

By sharing the beauty of Dhrupad, both in Nepal and internationally, the gurukul hopes to inspire future generations to appreciate the richness and transformative power of classical music.

‘Notes on Heartbreak’ by Annie Lord must be one of the most honest memoirs I have read. It’s a raw and intimate look at heartbreak and all the complexities it entails. The author doesn’t try to portray herself in a good light–as someone who had control over her emotions and took things one day at a time. She lays bare her sufferings and shows us how [badly] she dealt with things. She was a mess and she’s not afraid to show it as breakups are messy and traumatic, and she’s only human.

In most memoirs, writers try to show their good side and often sugarcoat their weakness, pinning the blame on someone else. They show themselves as victims, which they might have been, but in doing so they tend to invariably make us believe that the people in their lives have somehow been responsible for everything that has happened to them. They hardly ever take ownership of their actions. This is how ‘Notes on Heartbreak’ differs from the rest.

Despite reeling from a broken heart, Lord keeps things quite neutral. Joe is just another human, with his own set of flaws and baggage. He’s not someone who purposely tried to ruin Lord’s life. It’s quite easy to come out of a breakup bitter and cynical–after all, it feels like the one central truth of your existence has been shattered. But as Lord tells a love story in reverse, she shows you that pain can sometimes teach you important lessons, and that every story has at least two sides to it.

The autobiographical and poetic exploration of a five-year relationship coming to an end is heartwarming, funny, at times sad, and over all a beautiful meditation on love, longing, and loss. Lord shares inside jokes and tender moments to justify her rage and confusion. She can’t figure out why Joe would choose to end a perfectly good relationship. She longs for love, lives in denial for a while, and unsuccessfully tries to move on too fast. Her experiences could mimic that of many readers and make them realize that they aren’t alone, that their pain is felt and shared by every person who has ever fallen in love.

Notes on Heartbreak isn’t a story about a single heartbreak. It tells a universal story. It’s for anyone and everyone who has loved someone. I was reading a book on heartbreak and loss right before picking up Lord’s memoir. I won’t mention which book it was because it was horrible. So I was skeptical about Notes on Heartbreak. But the writing style was refreshing and I was hooked right from the start. It isn’t preachy. Lord isn’t dishing out advice on how to get over a heartbreak. She simply shares her thoughts and feelings, making you feel heard and validating your extreme emotions. The book is quite thick but the story doesn’t feel dragged out. I would highly recommend it.

https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/59777955-notes-on-heartbreak 

Notes on Heartbreak

Annie Lord

Published: 2022

Publisher: Trapeze 

Pages: 385, Paperback