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Dengue fever continues to challenge global health systems, transcending geographic boundaries and posing a threat to millions. Caused by four distinct dengue virus serotypes (DENV1-4), the disease—transmitted through the bites of Aedes mosquitoes—has seen an alarming rise over the past decades with half of the world’s population at risk. In 2023, dengue cases exceeded 6.5m, with over 7,300 deaths, the highest on record. Annually, 390m people are infected, with 96m showing clinical symptoms. Once confined to nine countries before 1970, dengue is now endemic in over 100 nations, predominantly in tropical and subtropical regions. Dengue’s reach is expanding, with cases emerging in new areas due to climate change, highlighting its escalating global impact.

Historical context: A long-standing global issue

The origins of dengue fever can be traced back over a thousand years. While the virus likely emerged from non-human primates and crossed into human populations a long ago, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that the disease became more widely recognized. The term “dengue” emerged during the 1828 Cuba epidemic, previously called “dunga”. Suspected outbreaks were reported in Martinique (1635), Guadeloupe, and Panama (1699). Ancient Chinese texts from the Chin (265–420) and Tang (610) dynasties described a similar illness as “water poison” linked to waterborne insects. The disease has thus been a recurrent global health threat for centuries, often emerging in new regions.

Clinical spectrum and diagnosis

Dengue ranges from mild, often asymptomatic cases (80 percent), to severe forms like hemorrhagic fever and shock syndrome. Symptoms last 2–7 days, with complications such as gastrointestinal bleeding and hematuria (blood in urine). Diagnosis varies by phase, using virus detection early and serology later. Treatment focuses on symptomatic management, with most cases managed at home and severe cases requiring hospitalization.

Dengue emergence in Nepal

Dengue outbreaks have evolved significantly over the past two decades, influenced by epidemiological shifts and environmental changes. Since the first imported case, a Japanese national in Chitwan in 2004, Nepal has experienced sporadic outbreaks, initially confined to the Tarai. The 2006 outbreak in Lumbini province, with 32 cases, marked the first notable local spread, with all four serotypes detected. 

The 2010 outbreak with 917 cases, including the first in the highland Kathmandu Valley, signaled dengue’s acclimatization. By 2011, it spread to 15 districts, and in 2013, a major outbreak across 25 districts, dominated by DENV-2, highlighted dengue’s persistence and complexity. The period marked dengue expansion into higher altitudes and the circulation of all serotypes, emphasizing the need for stronger surveillance and public health responses.

Large-scale outbreaks

Dengue outbreaks have shown increasing adaptability and severity. In 2016, a total of 1,527 cases and one death were reported across 30 districts, with Bagmati province and Chitwan district most affected. In 2017, 28 districts reported 2,111 cases with three deaths. In 2018, 43 districts recorded 811 dengue cases and three deaths. The largest outbreak was in 2019, with 17,992 cases and six deaths across 68 districts in all seven provinces, with Bagmati province most affected. Dengue’s spread from tropical to hilly subtropical regions highlighted the virus’s adaptability. 

The Covid-19 pandemic (2020–2021) saw a temporary decline in reported dengue cases with around 500 cases each year, due to movement restrictions, reduced healthcare access, and potential underreporting. However, dengue remained endemic, with the 15–49 age group most affected.

These outbreaks underscored the need for robust public health strategies, continuous surveillance, and climate-adaptive measures to manage the virus’s evolving threat.

Escalating dengue burden: 2022–2024

Nepal faced successive severe dengue outbreaks from 2022 to 2024, with escalating cases and widespread geographic impact. In 2022, the country recorded its worst outbreak with 54,784 cases and 88 deaths across all districts. Bagmati province accounted for 77 percent of cases, with Kathmandu Valley (1,300 meters) heavily affected due to rising temperatures, early monsoon, rapid urbanization and poor waste management. The epidemic peaked between August and November, with September alone contributing 50 percent of the cases.

In 2023, Nepal reported 51,243 cases and 20 deaths, with 75 percent concentrated in Koshi and Gandaki provinces, and 98 percent of the infections occurring between June and November.

By 3 Dec 2024, a total of 34,385 cases and 13 deaths were reported across 76 districts (Humla with no cases). Gandaki and Bagmati provinces contributed over 80 percent of the cases, with Kaski and Kathmandu, most affected, peaking in September and October.

Climate change and spread in highlands

Climate change has aggravated dengue spread to higher altitudes including the Kathmandu Valley and hilly regions. Traditionally confined to the Tarai, dengue now affects subtropical to mid-hills due to rising temperatures, increased rainfall, and extreme weather events like flooding and landslides. Outbreaks in 2016, 2019, 2022-2024 were marked by extreme weather events. 

Nepal’s average temperature has increased by 0.056°C over the past four decades, with higher elevations in the Himalayan regions experiencing more pronounced warming. This shift has created a conducive environment where A. aegypti and A. albopictus can now survive, thrive and breed. The dengue expansion into higher altitudes is particularly concerning, as it exposes new populations to the virus and increases the risk of severe outbreaks. Its spread to higher altitudes underscores its adaptability to diverse ecological niches. The co-circulation of multiple serotypes raises concerns about severe dengue in previously infected individuals. Additionally, poor waste management and inadequate vector control have exacerbated Nepal’s vulnerability. 

The rise of extreme weather events challenges dengue outbreak prediction and management, necessitating climate-adaptive, evidence-based public health interventions. Integrating climate-resilient health systems into national policies and enhancing local capacity is essential to address climate change’s impact on dengue transmission dynamics. A thorough understanding of vector behavior and environmental shifts is critical for effective mitigation.

Dengue’s escalating burden demands a multipronged approach, including vector control, climate adaptation, surveillance, and community engagement with adaptive governance. Community ‘Search and Destroy’ campaigns on eliminating stagnant water, using repellents and fumigation are vital in reducing transmission. A coordinated holistic strategy addressing biological and environmental factors is key to prevent future outbreaks, safeguarding public health across borders.

Madhes-based political parties have begun deliberations on forming a unified political force to advance the region’s agendas. According to Madhesi leaders, they face mounting pressure from the local level and civil society to consolidate their efforts for greater impact.

This push for unity coincides with discussions on amending the constitution by two major political parties—Nepali Congress (NC) and CPN-UML—an issue of critical importance to Madhes. Madhes-based parties, which did not initially endorse the 2015 constitution, saw only partial demands addressed through its first amendment in 2016.

Compounding this, Madhes has emerged as a geopolitical hotspot, drawing heightened interest from global powers. While India has traditionally wielded strong influence over Madhes and its political actors, countries like the United States and China have increased their presence through non-governmental organizations and think tanks, further complicating the region’s dynamics.

Keshav Jha, a prominent Madhesi leader, highlighted the urgency of unification. “We are under public pressure to unite the parties or, at the very least, form an alliance or loose network,” he said. However, the past 15 years have been marked by both the emergence of influential political forces and frequent splits within Madhes-based parties.

Jha noted that recent discussions among Madhesi leaders explored possibilities for collaboration but acknowledged significant challenges. Many leaders and civil society figures attribute the fragmentation of these parties to personal ambitions for power. A senior Madhesi leader Laxman Lal Karna further accused the major national parties—NC, UML, and CPN (Maoist Center)—of engineering splits within Madhes-based parties to weaken their influence.

Before 2006, the Sadbhawana Party was Madhes’ sole dominant political force. However, the first Constituent Assembly elections saw the rise of the Madhesi Janadhikar Forum under Upendra Yadav. The same year, senior NC leader Mahantha Thakur broke away to form the Tarai Madhes Loktantrik Party (TMLP). Splits within these parties became a recurring trend, notably in 2009, when differences between Yadav and Bijaya Kumar Gachhadar over joining the UML-led  government led to a major division. This cycle of fragmentation continues to this day.

In the last decade, a shift has occurred as Madhes-based parties strive to establish themselves as national political entities rather than remaining confined to a regional identity. Sociologist Pranab Kharel noted that most parties have removed the term ‘Madhes’ from their names in pursuit of a broader appeal. A prominent example is the 2016 unification between Upendra Yadav and former Maoist leader Baburam Bhattarai, who formed Naya Shakti to create a powerful national party. However, their efforts faltered due to personality clashes.

Kharel believes this identity struggle creates confusion. “There’s a lack of clarity on whether to operate as a provincial party for Madhes or expand as a national force. Personally, I think Madhes needs a strong provincial party to address its issues effectively,” he said. Despite leading the Madhes provincial government, the influence of Madhes-based parties in national politics has significantly waned due to internal divisions. Observers also point out that these parties face public scrutiny over unmet promises, with two elections held since the promulgation of the new constitution.

While the idea of unity among Madhes-based parties is gaining traction, observers caution that achieving it will be difficult. Personality clashes remain a significant hurdle, with no single leader commanding enough respect to unite all factions. Previous attempts to adopt rotational leadership systems also failed to resolve this issue. Additionally, ideological differences persist; leaders with backgrounds in liberal democracy clash with those rooted in leftist ideologies, making consensus elusive.

Amid these challenges, Keshav Jha notes a new polarization within Madhes. Anil Kumar Jha, leader of the Loktantrik Samajbadi Party, advocates for cooperation. “This is not the time to dwell on past weaknesses. We must take initiatives for a new kind of collaboration in Madhes,” he said. While he sees little potential for outright unification, he emphasizes the need for alliances and partnerships.

Raj Kishwor Yadav, vice-chairperson of the Janata Samajbadi Party, echoed this sentiment, stressing the importance of adapting to changing domestic and international dynamics. “The shifts in both domestic and global politics are affecting Nepal. We need fresh thinking when discussing alliances and unification,” he said. Similarly, Renu Yadav, another vice-chairperson of the Janata Samajbadi Party, emphasized that while multiple Madhes-based parties exist, they share common agendas.

Despite the challenges, the discourse around unification and collaboration among Madhes-based parties reflects a recognition of the region’s political fragmentation and the need for a cohesive approach to address its longstanding issues. Whether these efforts will lead to meaningful change remains to be seen.

Your home decor should be a reflection of your personality. It should make you feel comfortable as well as serve all your needs with the highest level of functionality. Every one of us has an idea about what we like or dislike and we do up our homes accordingly but decor trends can inspire you to think outside the book and find styles that you otherwise wouldn’t have come to know about.

So, this year, if you are looking to revamp your living room, make some tweaks in the bedrooms, change the feel of your entryway, or make some simple upgrades, look no further than some of these amazing trends that are going to rule in 2025. Some of these trends are making a comeback so you might already be familiar with them. Let the design trends of 2025 inspire you to live your best life at home while staying true to your personality.

A whimsical gallery wall

A gallery wall has long been in trend but it’s mostly a place to display photos. This year, expect to see whimsical gallery walls filled with random finds, paintings, and other artistic pieces rule the decor space. It’s a great way to ensure random memorabilias aren’t displayed all over the house, giving it a cluttered feel. You can even display items you have collected during family trips interestingly on a gallery wall. Consider framing them or putting up eclectic shelves to hold them.

Artistic furniture pieces

Regular sofas and side tables are things of the past. Think asymmetric designs and interesting shapes. As customization becomes widely available, there is no limit to the type of furniture you can have at your home. You don’t have to compromise on comfort or aesthetics. If you aren’t sure about it, try replacing a regular rectangle coffee table with a bold new one and see how it spruces up your space. You can also opt to replace a main item, like the dining table or the couch, with one in a different design to give your home an instant facelift.

Wonderful workspaces

Workspace was never a designated area in the house. But the Covid-19 pandemic changed that as more and more people started working from home. Suddenly, you needed a separate office space. Strike a balance between utility and aesthetic appeal but opting for large surfaces for desks and plush seating areas that are comfortable for long hours. A lot of people are already showing interest in creating an office space in their homes, making this just the right time to jump on the bandwagon.

Softer tones

There was a time when accent walls in varying hues like bright yellow, red, and blue were all the rage. Then an all-white theme took over with people opting for stark white walls and ceilings. It gave them more opportunities to play around with their decor. As 2024 drew to a close, the shift away from white towards pastel hues and soft tones was evident. Cream or nature-inspired colors like sage green or pale pink can make your space feel cozy than an all-white palette.

Smart technology

There’s something wonderful about making your home work for you and not having to run around for little things like opening the curtains, playing the music, or, everyone’s nightmare in winter, turning off the lights when you are snuggled in bed. There was a time when smart technology was expensive and inaccessible but now there are many ways to incorporate these into your home without spending a lot of money. Start by investing in some smart switches or automatic door locks for an efficient lifestyle at home. Smart technology is all about converting your home into a convenient space and there will be a lot of it to look forward to in 2025.

Cozy reading nooks

2025 design trends seem to be leaning towards comfort and sustainability. The cozy look is one of the recurring themes in design and an easy way to achieve that is by creating a reading nook that’s just perfect for daytime lounging. As digital detoxes and disconnecting from the world becomes more important than ever before, the popularity of reading nooks is set to soar. Thoughtful decor and comfortable seating spaces should be the most important aspects of creating a nook that brings a lot of panache into your space. 

Before discussing the issues around fairness, let me tease out its meaning. The Oxford Dictionary defines it as ‘impartial and just treatment or behaviour without favouritism or discrimination’. The definition seems straightforward, which is about not being impartial in treating others. If ‘fairness’ is searched on Google, it will provide more than 315m hits in less than a second. The websites include meaning, definition, examples, blogs and companies that work for fairness. Additionally, the Cambridge Dictionary categorizes ‘fairness’ as a Band-5 English word. That means ‘fairness’ is repeated 1-10 times in every one million words used. What that means is—there is no shortage of knowledge about fairness.

Despite being a common word, the understanding of fairness is diverse and differs from person to person, time to time and community to community. Let me give three examples and show a diverse understanding of fairness. In 1974, we had a puja (a religious event) in our house. Upon completing the puja, my father gave tika and money to some, just tika to some and nothing to the rest. My brothers and I got the tika but not the money. All my sisters got both tika and money.

I witnessed the second case in 1992. In a family, both husband and wife used to work for a commercial bank. They used to share the transport while going to the office and coming home. Other than during office hours, the husband used to read newspapers, watch TV, call friends and relatives, meet people and attend club meetings. The wife did have a different schedule that included cooking food, cleaning the house, washing clothes, shopping for groceries and preparing their children for school. I thought it was unfair to the wife. One day, I approached her and asked how she felt about the work she was doing at home. Interestingly, she never thought about the unfairness in daily life. She said, “I treat my husband as god. How can I ask him to do the dishes? This is my duty and little service to him.”

The third case links to a community school I saw in 1996. I visited a primary school in Palpa district, where I spent a day with a teacher and students. The primary school had three classes (Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3). Due to the low number of students, one teacher had to teach all students. While passing through the school, I saw wide age-ranging students sitting in one classroom. I learned that the youngest in the class was five years old, and the eldest was 13. Was it fair for students to study in the same class despite the expectations of developing skills and knowledge of different levels? Didn't those students deserve a better education?

The analysis of the above three examples provides multiple facets of fairness. The first one demonstrates the diverse understanding of fairness between father and son. Even though the difference seemed individual, deep-rooted culture and rituals played a vital role. The puja incident hurt me badly. It was unfair treatment to me and my brothers. Why couldn’t we get money? Even though I did not know the actual value of money, I knew its importance in getting sweets. I cried for money, which I believe was the cry for fair treatment. My requests were not heard, my tears ignored, and my questions overlooked. I was discriminated against sisters. The second case is an example of ignorance of fairness. Since the actions are accepted as a duty or the best act of a human being, fairness-related issues are not realized and raised. The third case is very broad in the sense of fairness. Many people may not even realize how people were treated differently.

Given the complexity of the understanding, the meaning of fairness is relatively straightforward for those who often miss the criticality in evaluating their thoughts and ideas when making decisions and distributing resources. Only those people who realize unfair treatment may better understand the importance of fairness. From a fairness perspective, people could be divided into three broad categories—some always get the benefits and feel it is deserved, some are always treated unfairly and believe that is what they have earned, and the rest do not understand the difference or do not care about fairness. Even though fairness lies in every action and decision, deep-rooted thoughts and ignorance cover unfair incidents. As a result, people do not pay much attention to fairness.

My sticking point regarding fairness was the unfair treatment in puja. The incident was one of thousands happening in the village every day. Even after three decades, I do not think these examples have become uncommon and outdated. If you have not gone through any of the unfair situations, you might be a privileged person. That means your position may have blocked the vision for differentiating fairness from unfairness.

The issues can be viewed from three broad perspectives–moral, social and legal. I took a moral view and expected equal treatment from my father. I expected my father to be impartial while making decisions and distributing resources. But my father took a social approach while treating me and my sisters differently. The government took a legal perspective in making the decisions for teacher allocations, maintaining the student-teacher ratio in the country. From the students’ point of view, their birth was random to the place, which should not have been penalized by deputing fewer teachers.

Fairness becomes more complex when happiness and profit are involved. For example, during an ultralight flight over Pokhara about a year ago, I marveled at the breathtaking views of land, rivers, lakes and vibrant communities–Pokhara is a canvas made of nature and hands! That is what I felt on landing. While I enjoyed the experience, the company earned profit. In return, the local residents had to cope with noise and polluted air. Is it fair for them?

Whilst considering everyday actions and decisions, can anyone be fair in all situations? Perhaps the obvious answer is no. What will happen if society lacks fairness? How far can a society go with favoured decisions and partial resource allocations? If these questions point toward a dark future, this is the time to think and act for a fairer and wiser society.

The author is the subject lead for Business Management (UG) at De Montfort University, Leicester and holds a PhD in the performance of small and medium enterprises