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One day, back in 2014, at the Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, 19 aspiring wildlife biologists, who had taken Wildlife Conservation and Management as a major, were discussing the human influence on biodiversity, wildlife species in particular. The late Man Kumar Dhamala, who was moderating the class as a faculty, gave an example of a species—Bengal Fox. According to him, the species, which was quite common a few decades earlier, is experiencing tremendous pressure and is declining rapidly despite having a wide dietary niche. Among the 19 folks, only one person, Narayan Niraula, who also hailed from Jhapa like the late Dhamala, said he knew about the species while others had no idea. Later on, Narayan Niraula went on to conduct his Masters dissertation to explore the conservation ecology of Bengal Fox in West Jhapa. As far as I know, thus far, this is the only dissertation written in Nepal with Bengal Fox as primary subject. This highlights the attention that this species has received from wildlife biologists in the country.

Bengal Fox

Bengal Fox, a member of the Canid family, is a medium-sized carnivore species known to occur in Nepal, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan and is endemic to South Asia. The range of the species is reported up to an elevation of 1,500m, however, the claim is still debated. There is a report claiming the record of the species from Lamtang National Park, however, as the species has not been recorded in mid-hills and the Himalayan Range, the case could be one of misidentification.

Bengal Fox mostly live in the interface of agricultural fields and forests and they usually avoid heavily forested areas. They are an omnivorous species with a wide dietary niche, consuming arthropods, rodents, reptiles, fruits and birds. This dietary niche means, Bengal Fox can have wider adaptability and significant impact to balance the ecosystem.   

Threats to Bengal Fox

In a recent assessment conducted in 2016, the global population of Bengal Fox was listed as least concerned species in IUCN Red List. However, the species is facing diverse forms of threats. As the species has not been studied well, we do not have ample evidence to prove the threats facing it. However, there are incidental records of Bengal Fox killed in road accidents and some records of poaching. Furthermore, the species prefers the small scrubs or short grassland; nowadays they usually build dens in the Agricultural field, escalating the threats to the species.

Back in 2016, when I was at Sundarpur area of Udayapur district for my dissertation, I noticed a den of Bengal Fox in the middle of the paddy field. One person was nearby and I had a conservation with him, who admitted that the species is causing the damage to the field and people usually damage the den and try to kill the species. 

Furthermore, the species is widely hunted in parts of Nepal for food. According to Narayan Niraula, some indigenous groups like Satar regularly hunt and consume the species in Jhapa. Given its status in Nepal. “Status of Nepal’s Mammals: The National Red List Series” has listed the species as vulnerable (VU).  

In Nepal and elsewhere, hunting on localized scale for trade of skin, tail, teeth and claws for medicinal and charm purposes is rampant. Furthermore, they undergo population fluctuations due to prey population cycles and disease outbreaks. In some cases, they may undergo local extirpation.

Local extirpation

On 2 July 2022, I was chitchatting in Tanahun with one of my relatives in his early 60s. We were discussing how the environmental factors, especially wildlife and their distribution, have changed. He recalled his childhood and teen years when the animal called “Khyak” that looked like a jackal but was smaller than them was common in Khairanitar of Tanahun district.  Back then, the Kumal community, an indigenous group known for their clay pot making skills, used to set the animals’ den afire and kill them. 

The species is extinct now, according to him. Based on his description, I thought the species could be Bengal Fox. When I wrote a post on social media, especially Facebook, stressing the need for conversation of the species, I received many comments. Narayan Niraula said that the species is known with different names in local dialects such as Khirkhire, Khek Shyal and Khekri. Sagar Dahal, a wildlife biologist, who works on research and conservation of small mammals, informed that Kanchan Parajuli from Hetaunda, Makwanpur district, had once spotted the species in Khairenitar (Kaski district) and taken its pictures. The elevation range of Khairenitar is nearly 600m, meaning the climatic condition was suitable for the species. 

According to Shashank Sharma, who was doing a PhD on Common Leopard, in the survey of nearly 600 sq km across Tanahun, Lamjung and Kaski, he had found no trace of the Bengal Fox. He adds, even the Asiatic Golden Jackal were also missing. This highlights the fate of wild canids as a whole.

Conservation measures

Owing to threats resulting from international trade in the species, India has kept the population of Bengal Fox in their country in Appendix III of Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, the Bengal Fox Population in Nepal has not seen any such measures. 

Way forward

As we lack information about the species in Nepal, it is essential to establish a baseline. Thus, the first initiatives should be exploring the distribution of the species and the threats facing them in those areas. Furthermore, based on the baseline, we need to plan and implement tailored conservation measures. Drawing from the concluding lines of the late Dhamala’s lectures, I reiterate here that all conservation biologists should aim to keep common species common. We all have to work together to keep Bengal Fox common.

The author is an assistant professor at the Department of Environmental Science, Padma Kanya Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University

Sita Kumari Rai (62) of Salpa Silicho Rural Municipality-3 in Bhojpur reminisces how she used to collect lichens in the forests surrounding her village until about a decade ago. However, these days, lichens have become scarce in the forest, requiring a one-hour walk to reach the upper areas to find them. Rai attributes the disappearance of lichens to excessive collection and the deterioration of the conducive environment in the forest.

"Lichens grow only in very sunny and clean places. After vehicles started plying the roads through the forest some five or six years ago, lichens stopped growing there," says Bishnu Rai, another resident of Salpa Silicho.

The situation is similar in neighboring Sankhuwasabha. Jangmu Bhote (38) from Chepuwa finds it increasingly difficult to locate lichens compared to five or seven years ago. She, however, has no clear understanding of why lichens are gradually disappearing.

Gangaraj Rai (30) from Silichong Rural Municipality in Sankhuwasabha has observed unmanaged collection of lichens in his village. "There is a high demand for lichens in the Kiranti community. In the process of collecting lichens, trees are being cut down," he said.

Locals categorize lichens based on color and shape. The long whitish lichen, locally known as Bachha, is considered a male, and the brown lichen, known as Mimchha, a female.

The disappearance of lichens has become a matter of serious concern for the Kiranti people. Lichen is a vital ingredient in many Kiranti dishes. Sargemba, a popular cuisine made by mixing pork blood with lichens and other spices, is the identity of the Kirant community. The community fears that their cultural dish will disappear as lichens become scarce. "Our newer generation cannot enjoy lichen if its growing environment is damaged at this rate. Kiranti festivals will no longer be as vibrant," said Sita Kumari Rai (62).

According to experts, lichens are disappearing from forests due to over-extraction, forest destruction, road construction, settlement expansion, temperature rise, climate change, and pollution. Dr Chitra Bahadur Baniya, from the Central Department of Botany at Tribhuvan University, says lichens serve as bio-indicators. “As they are sensitive to pollution, they help scientists in studying pollution levels and mitigating its impact on ecosystems and human health,” he said.

Lichens consumed by indigenous communities grow only in a clean environment. While they were once found in lower areas, they are fast disappearing due to increased pollution and forest encroachment. Extreme weather events like droughts and heavy rainfall also hinder their growth, which is exceptionally slow at only 0.01 percent per year.

Lichens, being one of the oldest life forms on Earth, are influenced by soil, environmental conditions, climate, rain, and humidity. Lichens are a complex life form that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms, a fungus and an alga. They lack a protective outer layer, making them highly susceptible to environmental disturbances. Even slight changes in acidity or alkalinity can have an immediate impact on their growth.

The protection of lichens is considered crucial for ecology as they play a vital role in various ecosystem functions. They contribute to the food chain, provide habitat for animals and birds, protect plants from adverse conditions, and manage water and mineral cycles in the forest. Additionally, lichens enrich the soil by releasing essential nutrients as they rot.

According to Dr Baniya, 1,217 species of lichens have been identified in Nepal in altitudes ranging from 90 meters to 6,000 meters above sea level. Twenty-four of these species are indigenous to the country. However, the indigenous community consumes only five or six types of lichens. 

People in Nepal consume lichen varieties such as Heterodermia, Ramalina, Everniastrum cirrhatum, Parmotrema cetratum, Thamnolia, Usnea, and Foliose, which are found at altitudes ranging from 1,410 meters to 3,600 meters above sea level, according to Dr. Shiva Devkota, who is conducting a study on lichens. "My study has shown that these lichens are disappearing rapidly as they are unable to withstand unfavorable circumstances," he said.

Most of these species of lichen are found in the mid-hills region of Nepal. Since they cannot withstand pollution, indiscriminate road construction is contributing to their disappearance. "Even forests suitable for lichen growth are being encroached upon," Dr. Devkota added.

The Mid-Hills Highway, spanning 1,789 km across the breadth of Nepal, traverses the mid-hills region from Chiwa Bhanjyang in the east to Jhulagha in the west. Ratna Laxmi Bajracharya, senior divisional engineer of the Mid-Hills Highway Project Directorate, said that the construction of a seven-meter-wide road alone may not be the sole reason for the growing disappearance of lichens from forests. "We acknowledge that we have not been able to prioritize environmental management to the extent we would like due to financial constraints," she added. "We need a budget for environmental management equal to that allocated for road construction."

In his research paper, 'Indigenous Knowledge and Use of Lichen,' Dr. Devkota has stated that sensitive vegetation like lichens can disappear in the absence of proper care to the environment during road construction.

In 2011, the government banned lichen exports, citing excessive extraction and destruction of forest for lichen collection. Jangmu Bhote (38) of Chepuwa said that locals have been adversely affected by the government's decision. Small-time traders like Bhote, who collect lichens from forests and sell them to consuming communities, have been hit hard. "The local administration has tightened sales and distribution of lichens for the past three to four years," she said. "We now require prior approval for collection and have to pay as much as Rs 7,000 to take herbs to the market. Finding lichens in forests is also becoming increasingly difficult."

Dr. Devkota said that the government lacks statistics on lichens. The government does not have exact export data on lichens. However, the official publication of the Forest and Soil Conservation indicates that Nepal exported as much as 2,020 tons annually between 2000 and 2001, generating revenue of Rs 252.9m.

Although government studies show an annual trade of around 168 tons, Dr. Devkota believes that illegal trade could be much larger. Tanka Prasad Sharma, chairman of the Nepal Herbs Traders Federation, argued that there is no justification for the lichen export ban. According to Sharma, lichen collection used to exceed 1,000 tons annually before the ban in 2011.

After the ban, police have seized illegally exported lichens on several occasions. District Police Office, Banke, seized 3,141 kg of lichens being exported to India in 2014 and 2017. About 70 percent of the total lichen exports used to be from Banke district.

In March 2017, police seized 1,721 kg of lichens from a rice mill in Janaki Rural Municipality-3 of Kailali. In the same year, police arrested 1,125 kg of lichens from a rice mill in Nepalgunj Sub-metropolitan City. Likewise, an unattended cargo of 295 kg of lichens was found in March 2014. "These are data from past years, and we haven't made any arrests related to the illegal trade of lichens in recent years," said Narayan Dangi, the spokesperson for the District Police Office, Banke.

Badri Dhungana, the spokesperson for the Ministry of Forest and Environment, said the ministry lacks exact data on lichen exports. "Lichens seized by police may have been collected during the period when the ban was relaxed," he said.

Police have seized lichens being exported even when the ban wasn't relaxed. "Traders may be exporting lichens under the pretext of other medicinal herbs. Our customs lack sophisticated labs and a trained workforce to control such exports," he added.

While lichen collection in eastern Nepal is solely for consumption, collection in the western region is for trade, according to Dr. Devkota. Government data indicates that 20 species of lichens are being collected in Nepal. Even lichen varieties on the IUCN's red list, like Hypotrachyna, Everniastrum Nepalensis, Parmotrema, and Cirrhatum, have been collected in Nepal and are popular among the local populace.

Despite the importance of lichen in Nepal, responsible agencies such as the forest ministry, botany department, forest department, forest offices, and police provide inadequate responses to inquiries about lichen export. Surendra Adhikari, an officer at the Department of Forest, argued that there is no sense in banning lichen export. “All types of lichens are treated as one. When the ban was lifted, it applied to all varieties,” he said.

The government lifted the ban on lichen exports last year. Dhungana, the spokesperson for the ministry, stated that the new provision has lifted the ban on the collection, sale, and export of lichens. "Even when the ban was in place, authorities hadn’t prevented indigenous communities from collecting lichens for consumption purposes," he added.

Dr Devkota's research indicates that lifting the ban on lichen export negatively affects endangered species of lichens. He fears that this decision would have adverse effects on endangered species which are also tied to the culture and traditions of various indigenous people.

"The government shouldn't intervene in the traditional practices of indigenous communities," said Kamal Maden, a botanical expert. "Lichen collection in the eastern area is for consumption purposes, while collection in the western region is for trade purposes."

Maden called on the government to regulate exports while ensuring proper management of lichens, considering their traditional importance to indigenous communities.

Lack of research

Dr. Baniya pointed out that the government is not conducting or supporting research on lichens. He said that the government seems focused solely on revenue collection and not on environmental management.

Despite the significance of lichens, little has been done beyond identifying the species. If the current rate of lichen collection continues unchecked, it could lead to environmental imbalances, and numerous species could face extinction, say experts.

Forest ministry spokesperson Dhungana suggested that universities should take the initiative for research on the environmental impacts of lichens. “Research and study have never been a priority for the government due to resource constraints,” he said. “Even if funds are allocated, people will raise fingers claiming that financial resources are being misused.”

Endangered species

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) classify endangered species globally. Countries adhering to CITES must follow its rules and have the responsibility to protect flora and fauna on the red list categorized as endangered.

However, whether knowingly or unknowingly, the habitat of lichen species has been destroyed due to over-extraction, deforestation, and forest fragmentation. 

Dr Baniya said that lichens have been classified as endangered for conservation and protection. Dr Devkota said many lichen varieties, categorized as endangered, are being exported from Nepal without any hindrance.

Medicinal values

Pratiman Rai (71) from Salpa Silicho-3, Bhojpur, consumes lichens whenever he experiences body aches and diarrhea. “We consume lichens also during festivals like Dashain when meat consumption is high,” he added.

Shiwani Yonghang, a researcher at the Department of Microbiology at Tribhuvan University, conducted research on the medicinal value and scientific evidence of lichens consumed by various indigenous communities. She said that the Everniastrum Nepalensis variety of lichen consumed by different indigenous groups have antibacterial properties. 

“Other varieties like Everniastrum cirrhatum, Everniastrum Nepalensis, and Parmotrema cetratum have been employed as remedies for stomach problems, diabetes, whooping cough, tuberculosis, cancer, and skin diseases,” she said.

However, the Department of Drug Administration maintains that these uses have not been clinically proven yet. “We need sophisticated technology to ascertain medicinal values in lichens,” Yonghang added.

Experts say there is a huge demand for lichens outside the country due to their high nutritional values and antioxidant properties. Lichens, especially the Usnea variety, is used in various medicines to treat skin diseases, constipation, kidney problems, urinary diseases, and gynecological problems.

Experts have called for more research and studies on lichens by respecting the traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous communities. They also said that the government must regulate lichen export to prevent further destruction of its vegetation due to haphazard road construction in the name of development. 

Likewise, they say efforts should be made to eliminate unnecessary administrative hassles for local communities that have been using lichens for generations. Dr Devkota suggests educating them on proper collection methods, usage, and the importance of lichens.

Prepared with the support of the Earth Journalism Network of Internews

Much like how we wash our hands to stay healthy, practicing good cyber hygiene helps protect against online threats. As we use digital technology for various aspects of our lives, from communication to financial transactions, practicing good cyber hygiene is important. It lets users navigate their digital experience while mitigating potential risks.

SP Pashupati Kumar Ray, 48, has been working in the Nepali Police Cyber Bureau for 27 years. He looks after cybersecurity-related issues and is involved in cybercrime investigations. Babita Shrestha from ApEx talked to Ray about how to deal with and respond to problems in cyber security.

What should we do to secure our devices from cybersecurity threats?

First make sure you regularly update the operating system, antivirus software, and application as it will fix vulnerabilities that could be exploited by hackers. But at the same time, you should be very mindful of the software you use. Be careful about using pirated software because it often lacks proper security features, making it easier for hackers to find a way in. Some free apps we download might also try to take our information, so it’s good to check and control what data they can access. Also when you set a password, make it strong and unique by mixing letters, numbers, and symbols. I would recommend you turn on two-factor authentication to give extra protection which asks you for a second verification besides the password. Be cautious about clicking on links or downloading things, especially if they come from unknown sources in emails or messages, as they might be harmful.

Are public Wi-Fi networks secure?

While using public networks, it’s best not to do important things like accessing or transmitting highly confidential data, such as online banking or sensitive work information. Don’t use public Wi-Fi when you have to put in your username, password, or OTP. It’s risky because someone could easily steal that information. So I would say it’s better not to use public Wi-Fi for anything related to security, privacy, or transactions with sensitive information. Public Wi-Fi networks are okay for simple internet browsing but it’s still good to check if it’s secure.

How can we avoid phishing attempts or any social engineering attacks?

If you’re receiving phishing attempts, then you should look for signs in email like unfamiliar senders, misspellings, or suspicious URLs. Phishing is all about trickery and stealing information, so it is better when you verify details by making a call if something seems off. Nowadays, AI spots emails that might be scams and pre-inform you about them. It’s always a good idea to double-check if someone asks for personal or financial details unexpectedly.

How can we recognize and avoid fake websites and phishing URLs when browsing the internet?

Fake website links can be tricky. Check if the website’s address has misspellings or extra characters. Make sure the website starts with “https://” and has a padlock icon in the address bar. Use browser security features and antivirus software to stay protected. Make it a habit to double-check. It can help you avoid scams and keep your personal information safe when browsing the internet. Sometimes you also need to trust your instincts about making friends online. Don’t talk to people you don’t know, stay away from suspicious links, and be careful about sharing too much. ‘Stop, Think, and Connect’ before clicking or sharing anything online.

Is there a way to prevent unauthorized access?

To keep your online accounts safe, use strong and different passwords for each one of them. If you can, turn on two-factor authentication. Change passwords regularly and avoid using easy-to-guess details like birthdays. Make sure to adjust privacy settings on social media and other accounts. Also, be cautious about what you install on your devices and check what it’s allowed to do before saying ‘yes’. I suggest you get your application from trusted places to avoid downloading malicious software.

What are your thoughts on virtual private networks (VPNs)?

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) are good for keeping your online stuff safe. But, again, you need to be careful where you get them. For example, when TikTok was banned in Nepal some people downloaded VPNs for free to use it. The VPN itself isn’t bad, but if you download it from the wrong place, like for free, it might bring harmful stuff like spyware or malware software along with it. This can harm your computer and even let hackers in. So, it’s better to be safe and get your VPN from a trusted source, especially if you’re using it to keep your data safe.

What resources are available for reporting online harassment or cyberbullying in Nepal?

If someone is bothering or bullying you online, I suggest you save messages or take screenshots to prove what’s going on. Report the problem to the Nepal Police by filing a complaint. You have to explain the situation and show any evidence you have. The police will look into it and take action against the person causing problems. But you should act within 35 days of the incident. Otherwise, the case might get dismissed as per the Electronic Transaction Act. The Nepal Police are here to help so don’t hesitate to contact them if you’re dealing with online harassment.

While the year 2024 is going to be a grand electoral year in the history of modern liberal democracy, the risks that democracy could witness grave tremors are getting higher.

The tech and AI mastery of the high tech superpowers—China and the US—is not only contributing to tech bipolarity, economic rivalry, and geopolitical tensions, but also in democratic antagonism. They are exploiting technology and digital capabilities to contain or dictate each other and are involved in ‘techno-geopolitics’, while the big tech and social media are engaged in ‘disinformation’ and ‘data colonialism’. 

Democracy is in danger not only because of authoritarian rulers, or ethnic (muscular) nationalism, or the risk of disinformation, or influence of AI, but also due to general voters. The voters’ rational behavior/decision could play a significant role in preserving the essence and affluence of liberal democracy as every elector is responsible in making democracy sparkling and functional.