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The degradation of public commons—ponds, forests, and water sources—has left many communities vulnerable to climate change. The focus must shift to solutions, reforms, and community-driven initiatives that can rebuild resilience and ensure equitable access to resources.

Juddha Bahadur Gurung, member at National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission (NNRFC), quips, “Public commons are for all, but not cared for by all.” Solid waste is directly dumped into rivers and ponds, while polluted air from industries is released into the atmosphere. “Such actions significantly degrade public commons, yet no one seems concerned about their care,” says Gurung.

Public commons, which are also natural resource ecosystems, provide four essential services: provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. However, many people have yet to fully realize the value of these services. 

Nepal’s existing environmental and climate policies acknowledge the importance of public commons but fail to effectively integrate them into climate adaptation strategies. The Local Government Operation Act 2017 assigns responsibility for resource management to municipalities, but its implementation remains weak due to insufficient technical expertise and funding constraints. Similarly, the National Adaptation Plan (NAP) 2021 recognizes climate risks but lacks concrete provisions for restoring commons as a resilience strategy.

To address this issue, experts ApEx talked to recommend several key measures. First, they propose establishing a dedicated restoration program to regenerate ponds, communal water bodies, and degraded forests. They also emphasize the need for climate-responsive urban planning to ensure that infrastructure projects do not encroach upon natural water systems and commons, preventing further degradation. Strengthening legal protections for commons is crucial to preventing the privatization of public resources and ensuring their equitable governance.

Despite policy gaps, several grassroots initiatives offer replicable models for sustainable resource management. In many local areas, communities have successfully revived traditional water harvesting systems, such as ‘dhunge dharas’ (stone spouts), reducing reliance on the often unreliable municipal water supply. The community forest program has also proven to be an effective climate buffer, empowering local groups to manage forest resources, prevent degradation, and support livelihoods. Expanding this model to include wetlands and water sources could further strengthen local adaptation efforts. Additionally, in the Tarai region, farmer cooperatives are reviving small-scale irrigation ponds, demonstrating how decentralized initiatives can mitigate water scarcity and enhance agricultural productivity.

Integrating technology can significantly enhance public commons management by enabling data-driven decision-making and efficient resource allocation. Satellite monitoring and GIS mapping can help identify lost or degraded commons, allowing for targeted restoration efforts. Artificial Intelligence (AI)-powered climate forecasting can provide early warnings to communities that rely on commons for agriculture and livelihoods, helping them prepare for climate-induced disruptions. As AI continues to develop rapidly, there should be discussions on how it can assist with public commons management. If other countries have successfully applied AI, we should learn from their experiences. Additionally, promoting water conservation infrastructure, such as decentralized rainwater harvesting, recharge wells, and nature-based solutions, can ensure sustainable water management and resilience against water scarcity.

Avishek Shrestha, Program Director at Digo Bikas Institute, says, “Public commons have always been shared resources for communities. In Kathmandu, Durbar Squares serve as public commons, providing spaces for gatherings in what was once an isolated city. However, their importance is increasingly undermined.” 

For lasting impact, local communities must play an active role in decision-making regarding public commons management. Participatory budgeting allows municipal funds to be allocated for commons restoration based on community needs, ensuring that resources are directed where they are most needed. Citizen monitoring committees can help maintain accountability in resource governance, preventing the misuse of funds and ensuring transparent management. Public awareness campaigns are also crucial for educating communities about their rights to access and restore commons, fostering a sense of ownership and collective responsibility.

Public commons are not just environmental assets; they are lifelines for marginalized communities facing the harshest climate impacts. Strengthening policies, fostering community-led initiatives, and leveraging technology are crucial steps toward climate resilience. Without urgent action, the erosion of commons will continue to deepen social and economic disparities, leaving vulnerable populations increasingly exposed to climate crises.

The path forward requires a collective effort—policymakers must prioritize public commons restoration, local governments must implement inclusive strategies, and communities must actively engage in safeguarding their shared resources. Only through such an integrated approach can Nepal build a climate-resilient future for all.

Indira Kumari Shreesh, Chairperson, Indigenous Women Legal Awareness Group (INWOLAG) says: “Through my observations and research, I have found that, under the guise of various developments, our public commons—vital for climate resilience—are being destroyed, and all levels of government are equally complicit in this.” 

We have traveled across the nation, visiting rural areas and meeting indigenous communities to raise awareness about this destruction, she says,  however, we are not against development; rather, we advocate for sustainable development. “It should not only preserve the fabric of human communities but also protect biodiversity and natural ecosystems.”

Suwapong Sirisorn, the Ambassador of the Kingdom of Thailand to Nepal, is a distinguished diplomat with a career in foreign affairs spanning over three decades. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Political Science (International Affairs) from Thammasat University, Thailand, and a Master of Arts in Policy Sciences from Saitama University, Japan. Since joining the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1989, he has held key diplomatic positions across Asia and Europe, including Consul-General in Frankfurt and Minister at the Royal Thai Embassy in Berlin. In recognition of his exemplary service, he has been honored with prestigious national decorations, including the Knight Grand Cross (First Class) of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant. Pratik Ghimire of ApEx spoke with him about Nepal-Thai relations. Excerpts:

How do you see the current state of Nepal-Thailand relations?

Thailand and Nepal established diplomatic relations in 1959 or 66 years ago. The relationship between our two countries has always been excellent, based on mutual trust, respect, and understanding. We also share deep Buddhist ties and Nepal as the birthplace of Lord Buddha, is a sacred destination for Thai pilgrims. We have close cooperation in various fields.

I would like to highlight some examples which demonstrate that our two countries have worked together to overcome difficult situations. After the earthquake in 2015, Thai people donated money and volunteered to help reconstruct houses and basic infrastructures, and delivered food and medical assistance to Nepali people. With donations from Thai people, the Royal Thai Government can conduct various projects throughout Nepal. Furthermore, during the Covid-19 outbreak, Thailand provided medical equipment and supplies to Nepal on various occasions including the Royal Assents bestowed by His Majesty the King, the Royal Thai Government, and people of Thailand’s contribution. This shows the warm and cordial ties between our two countries at all levels.

Could you please shed light on the key areas of bilateral cooperation?

We are enhancing cooperation with Nepal in various aspects including, economic, tourism, religion, culture, and education. Thailand has continuously supported human resources development and Nepal’s Sustainable Development Goals by providing scholarships for higher education, sharing knowledge, and best practices. Thailand also partners with other countries and international organizations to offer training courses relevant to the current global landscape. At the same time, our two countries have always worked closely together and supported each other in many international and regional fora including the United Nations and BIMSTEC.

In terms of cultural cooperation, the Royal Thailand Embassy has organized several activities to strengthen the cultural ties between the two countries including Thai Festival in Nepal, Thai Food Festival, and Thai Film Festival in Nepal. For economic cooperation, we also encourage businessmen and industrialists from both Nepal and Thailand to seize this transformative opportunity to enhance trade and investment by focusing on key sectors such as tourism, IT, agriculture, and clean energy.

Tell us about the Thai cooperation in Lumbini.

The Royal Thai Government constructed the Royal  Thai Monastery in Lumbini in 1995. The Thai Monastery in Lumbini, not only plays a significant role in spreading Lord Buddha’s teaching but also conducts social support for Nepali communities in Lumbini. Since 2011 the Royal Thai Monastery in Lumbini and the Royal Thai have been organizing free cataract surgical workshops called Brightness to the Nepal’s Eye Project to improve the quality of life of vulnerable and deprived people in Lumbini and nearby areas who are suffering from cataract and eye-related problems. The medical team from Thailand led by a specialist from Ramathibodi Hospital, joined hands with Tilganga Institute in eye surgery and treatments.  Moreover, the Royal Thai Monastery integrated with Thai and Nepali hospitals also organized free Knee Replacement Operation project, Urolithiasis (bladder-stone) Treatment Project, and weekly dental treatments in Lumbini.

What is the current status of Thail investment in Nepal and what are the potentials?

At present, Thai investment in Nepal remains modest, but there is considerable potential for growth. According to official records up to fiscal year 2022/23, the Government of Nepal approved 13 projects involving Thai investors, with a total value of around $7.76m. However, the actual investment realized so far is about $900,000, which accounts for only 12 percent of the approved amount. This indicates that while interest exists, many projects have yet to fully materialize.

Despite these relatively small figures, we see significant opportunities ahead. First, Nepal has a young and dynamic population—around half of its 30m citizens are under the age of 30—offering a promising labor force capable of driving economic growth. Moreover, Nepal is on track to graduate from Least Developed Country (LDC) status by 2026, a milestone that reflects its progress in economic and social development. As the country adapts to this new status, we expect an increasingly conducive environment for international trade and foreign direct investment.

Looking ahead, there are several key sectors in Nepal that hold particular interest for Thai businesses. Tourism is a natural fit given Thailand’s strong expertise in hospitality and services, and Nepal’s remarkable cultural and natural attractions. Hydropower is another promising field, given Nepal’s abundant water resources and the potential for sustainable energy development. Additionally, infrastructure, healthcare, and agriculture offer possibilities for collaboration, technology transfer, and investment.

We at the Royal Thai Embassy are working to raise awareness among Thai entrepreneurs about the opportunities in these sectors. Part of that effort involves providing market information, organizing business forums, and fostering connections between Thai and Nepali companies. Last year on 16th of September we organized the Focus Group Discussion on “Embrace Nepal’s Post-LDC Era for Thai Economic Opportunities” which gathered key stakeholders from Thailand and Nepal to discuss economic opportunities of Nepal which may arise from the LDC graduation. We believe that building strong partnerships on the ground is crucial. For instance, joint ventures or knowledge-sharing initiatives can help Thai investors navigate local regulations, distribution networks, and cultural nuances more effectively. At the same time, we encourage the Nepali government and private sector to continue facilitating a favorable business environment. This includes enhancing transparency, streamlining regulatory processes, and improving infrastructure—steps that will make Nepal even more attractive for Thai investors and businesspeople.

What about interaction at the top political level?

We exchanged several heads of government and high-ranking government officials’ visits including the visits of the President of Nepal and the Minister of Defense of Nepal to Thailand in 2017, the Prime Minister of Thailand visited Nepal for the BIMSTEC Summit in 2018. We are looking forward to increasing high-level visits with the Nepal side to strengthen cooperation between our two countries.

What are the future areas in which Thailand wants to engage with Nepal?

I believe that there is lots of potential to expand our cooperation and work as cooperative partners in this area of interest. I would like to highlight the area of “Tourism” since Nepal is rich in cultural heritage and has such a unique landscape and the country. We can share experiences of the development of our tourism sectors especially in hospitality training, logistic management, and safety measures for tourists. Furthermore, Thailand and Nepal can work together to promote the Buddhist circuit to draw the attention of international tourists to the historical Buddhist sites in Thailand and Nepal. The Royal Thai Embassy is willing to coordinate with the Nepali side to enhance tourism cooperation between the two countries.

Chairperson of the CPN (Maoist Center), Pushpa Kamal Dahal, has urged royalists to seek their place within the democratic system. The crowd participating in the royalist rally are also Nepalis, he said: if we ignore their demand for a better country, the monarchy and other reactionary elements will try to raise their heads.

“My request to the royalists is—find your place within democracy,” said Dahal while addressing Parliament on Tuesday. He emphasized that democracy belongs equally to both himself and former King Gyanendra Shah, a sentiment enshrined in the constitution. However, he warned that if unconstitutional and undemocratic paths were chosen, the revolutionary forces would once again demonstrate their strength.  

“We must remember the glorious sacrifices of different periods in history with wisdom and gratitude because the achievements gained through those sacrifices are now under threat from reactionary forces,” he said.  

Dahal reiterated that attempts were being made to overturn the people’s hard-earned achievements and that the current situation required simultaneous resistance against both the government’s wrongdoings and regressive forces. “There is now a need to fight on two fronts—against the government’s misdeeds and against reactionary elements,” he said.  

He further stated that allowing the former king to reside in Nepal was a testament to the country’s fundamental and liberal republicanism. “The history of monarchy worldwide is written in blood. But Nepal became an exception. Our liberal approach ensured that the former king was not exiled and was given a safe place to stay. That is how Nepal’s republican history was written,” he said.  

However, he cautioned that perceiving this leniency as a weakness would be a grave mistake. “If anyone thinks that this was a compulsion of the revolution, they are completely mistaken. If our liberalism is seen as a weakness, history may once again unfold with great severity,” he warned.  

Dahal reminded everyone that the republic was not only a result of the Maoists’ armed struggle but also the outcome of sacrifices from marginalized communities, ethnic groups, regions and genders.   “Let everyone remember this: if anyone believes that the sovereign people will once again become subjects, there can be no bigger illusion than that,” he asserted. He added that the presence of royalists in a democratic parliament itself was proof that democracy and monarchy were incomparable.  

However, Dahal blamed the government for the growing royalist activities. “The threats to democracy are not just external. More than external forces, misgovernance by those in power poses a greater challenge from within,” he said. He argued that the declining credibility of the government had emboldened conservative and monarchist forces. 

Dahal, the leader of the main opposition party, also criticized the ruling party for disregarding democratic values, pointing to Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli’s absence during his speech. “When the leader of the main opposition party stands at the rostrum, the prime minister’s continued absence—is it arrogance, lack of etiquette or frustration? You should answer that yourselves,” he remarked.

Previously too, Prime Minister Oli was absent while Dahal addressed the parliament. It is a general trend of the Prime Minister being present while the leader of the main opposition party addresses the parliament and vice-versa. Prime Minister Oli meanwhile was addressing the Koshi Province Assembly on Tuesday.

After Dahal’s speech, Nepali Congress General Secretary Gagan Thapa expressed disagreement with some of Dahal’s remarks about the government. However, he echoed Dahal’s concerns about the need for the government to regain public trust.  

“During the drafting of the constitution, when I spoke about the need for change, I was accused of treason. Many here faced the same accusations. But this democratic republican system allows us to question and even challenge the system itself,” he said.

Thapa stressed that those who support the constitution must find common ground, whether in the government or in the opposition. “We need to maintain at least a minimal level of consensus—to protect the constitution, safeguard constitutional bodies and ensure proper governance,” he said.  

He also urged political leaders to engage in civil and informed debates rather than spreading hatred.   “We can criticize and question, but let’s not spread hate. If we allow hatred to consume us, it will take us all down. Let’s compete, but through civilized and informed discussions, both inside and outside Parliament,” he said.  

Thapa further urged the government to respond to the opposition’s concerns without arrogance. “If the government listens to the grievances of citizens and addresses them without arrogance, those who stand for change will unite through dialogue and good governance,” he added. 

He also stressed the need to address public dissatisfaction. “The people who stood by political parties during the democratic movement are now disillusioned. The government must listen to their concerns and address them before it’s too late,” he warned.

Nepal’s sex workers, especially females, continue to face systemic discrimination, criminalization and social stigma despite growing calls for legal reforms and recognition of their rights. A comprehensive report submitted to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) by multiple sex worker-led organizations and advocacy groups reveals widespread injustices, including arbitrary arrests, police brutality, lack of access to justice and exclusion from healthcare and social security systems.

The report prepared by Sex Workers and Allies South Asia (SWASA), Jagriti Mahila Mahasangh (JMMS), Nari Chetna Samaj (NCS/SWAN) and 17 other grassroots organizations highlights how Nepal’s current legal framework conflates consensual sex work with human trafficking, leading to severe human rights violations. The organizations urge the government to decriminalize sex work and implement policies that protect sex workers from abuse and exploitation.

Sex work in Nepal exists in a legal gray area—it is neither explicitly legalized nor outright criminalized. However, the Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2007 and the National Penal Code treat sex work as an offense by criminalizing solicitation, brothel ownership, and third-party involvement.

The conflation of voluntary adult sex work with human trafficking has resulted in severe misapplications of the law. Many sex workers have been arrested under public decency laws, accused of engaging in trafficking or harassed for merely carrying condoms—often used as “evidence” of solicitation.

According to the report, sex workers often experience arbitrary arrests and detentions, with many routinely apprehended under Section 119 of the National Penal Code, which criminalizes solicitation, and Section 4(1) of the Human Trafficking Act, which wrongfully categorizes all sex work as trafficking. These legal provisions have been widely misused to target sex workers rather than to address actual cases of human trafficking.

Additionally, police extortion and harassment are rampant, with many sex workers reporting that they are forced to pay bribes to avoid arrest. Per the report, law enforcement officers often threaten to expose their identities to families and communities, leveraging social stigma as a means of coercion. This fear of public shaming and familial rejection further isolates sex workers and prevents them from seeking legal protection.

The report also highlights the discriminatory application of laws, where sex workers are frequently targeted under anti-trafficking statutes, while the real perpetrators of human trafficking often evade justice due to weak enforcement mechanisms. Instead of focusing on traffickers, law enforcement prioritizes punitive actions against sex workers, reinforcing a cycle of victimization rather than addressing the root causes of trafficking and exploitation.

“Sex workers are criminalized not because of any harm they cause, but because of moral and social stigma,” says Shanti Tiwari from SWASA Nepal. “This pushes them into more vulnerable conditions, making them easy targets for violence and exploitation.”

The report documents numerous instances of police brutality against sex workers, detailing how law enforcement officers frequently engage in physical and sexual abuse. Many sex workers report being beaten, harassed or even forced to perform sexual favors in exchange for their release. Such abuses not only violate fundamental human rights but also contribute to the deepening stigma and fear within the sex worker community.

Illegal detentions and raids are also common, with more than 55 sex workers forcibly taken to so-called “rescue homes” between 2022 and 2024. These operations, carried out by anti-trafficking NGOs in collaboration with police, often occur without the consent of those being detained. Instead of providing support or protection, these forced rescues further marginalize sex workers, subjecting them to confinement and, in some cases, even mistreatment under the guise of rehabilitation.  

Additionally, violations of privacy and forced outings are widespread. “Police officers frequently threaten to disclose a sex worker’s identity to their families or communities as a means of coercion,” Tiwari says. “This tactic not only places sex workers at risk of social exclusion and family rejection but also discourages them from reporting abuses or seeking legal help, effectively trapping them in a cycle of vulnerability and fear.”

The report submitted to CEDAW highlights that over 25 percent of reported violence cases against sex workers in Nepal were perpetrated by police. Another 15 percent involved anti-trafficking NGOs who, instead of assisting victims of trafficking, have been accused of unlawful detentions and forced rehabilitation.

One case study in the report details how a sex worker in Kathmandu was arrested under a public decency law while simply waiting for a bus. She was detained overnight, forced to pay a bribe and later released without any formal charges. “They told me I was loitering and accused me of soliciting clients. But I was just trying to go home,” she recounts.

The report calls for law enforcement reforms, including sensitivity training and legal distinctions between consensual sex work and human trafficking.

Access to healthcare remains a significant challenge for sex workers in Nepal, with many avoiding medical services due to fear of discrimination from healthcare providers. The report submitted to CEDAW highlights several concerning trends in this regard. 

One major issue is the denial of medical services, with some hospitals and clinics refusing to treat sex workers once their profession is known. Additionally, many sex workers are subjected to forced HIV testing without their informed consent, violating their privacy and autonomy. Furthermore, sex workers often face difficulties accessing reproductive healthcare, including contraception and safe abortion services, putting them at a higher risk of unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions.

According to Tiwari, legal barriers prevent sex workers from enrolling in government health programs. “Since citizenship certificates are often required for medical services, many sex workers—who lack proper identification—are denied healthcare altogether,” she says.

One HIV-positive sex worker in rural Nepal was reportedly expelled from her village after her status came to light. “The doctor violated my confidentiality. When my neighbors found out, they forced me to leave,” she shared.

The report recommends that the government implement gender-sensitive health care policies, ensure confidentiality, and remove citizenship requirements for accessing essential health services.

A staggering 63 percent of sex workers in Nepal lack citizenship certificates, rendering them effectively stateless. “Without these essential documents, they face significant barriers in accessing basic rights and services,” Tiwari says. “They are unable to vote in elections, open bank accounts, enroll their children in school or access government welfare programs, further marginalizing them from society and denying them the opportunities that citizenship provides.”

Under the Citizenship Act, a woman can only pass on citizenship to her child if the father is unknown and she provides a formal declaration. This disproportionately affects sex workers, many of whom are single mothers or have been abandoned by their partners. “I wanted to enroll my son at school, but they asked for my citizenship. Without it, he cannot study,” says a sex worker from Nawalparasi.

The report submitted to CEDAW urges the government to reform citizenship laws to ensure that sex workers and their children are not left stateless.

Sex workers and their children face significant barriers in accessing education. Many children of sex workers are denied school admission due to their mother’s profession, while others are expelled if they lack birth certificates. Higher education also remains out of reach for these children as universities require a citizenship certificate for enrollment.

Additionally, Labour Act 2017 does not recognize sex work as a form of labor, meaning sex workers are excluded from labor protections, social security benefits and workplace rights. “The government says we are criminals, but at the same time, they refuse to provide us with alternative livelihoods,” says a sex worker from Kathmandu. “If we are to leave this work, where do we go?”

The submission outlines several key recommendations for the government to address the challenges facing sex workers. These include decriminalizing sex work by removing punitive laws against sex workers, clients and third parties. It also recommends amending trafficking laws to clearly distinguish between consensual sex work and human trafficking. The submission calls for ensuring police accountability by investigating and prosecuting law enforcement officers who abuse sex workers. 

Additionally, it emphasizes the need to provide legal recognition and protections, such as granting citizenship, labor rights and access to justice. Finally, the report urges the government to improve healthcare and social security access by removing legal and bureaucratic barriers that prevent sex workers from accessing essential services.

Nepal is home to three otter species—the Eurasian otter, the smooth-coated otter, and the Asian small-clawed otter—but these charismatic creatures are facing an uphill battle for survival. Habitat destruction, illegal fishing, pollution, and human encroachment are pushing these species to the brink. However, a new initiative led by WWF Nepal, funded by the UK government’s Darwin Initiative, is working to address these challenges by integrating otter conservation with community empowerment and sustainable livelihoods. While the project has shown promise, it also highlights the complex interplay between conservation efforts and the needs of local communities.

The Eurasian otter, locally known as the black otter, is increasingly threatened by habitat loss and degradation. The smooth-coated otter, listed as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List, is distinguished by its sleek fur and social behavior, while the Asian small-clawed otter, the smallest of the three, lives in large social groups and is particularly vulnerable to human disturbances. All three species depend on healthy freshwater ecosystems—clean, flowing rivers, sandy banks, and dense riparian forests—but these habitats are under severe pressure from illegal fishing, sand mining, deforestation, and pollution.

In response, WWF Nepal launched the Strengthening Communities’ Livelihood and Stewardship to Conserve Otters in Karnali project. The initiative aims to protect otter habitats while supporting the livelihoods of marginalized communities, such as the Sonaha and Tharu, who rely on the Karnali River for their survival. “The idea is to reduce pressure on river resources by providing communities with sustainable alternatives,” explains Aashish Kapali, Freshwater Program Associate at WWF Nepal. “If we can empower these communities to make sustainable decisions, it will benefit both people and wildlife.”

Otters depend on healthy freshwater ecosystems, including deep river channels, clean flowing water, sandy riverbanks, and dense riparian forests. However, these habitats are being degraded by illegal fishing, sand mining, deforestation, and pollution. Interestingly, Kapali, who has been working in the otter area for two years, has not seen a live otter. “It is a shy animal and is not seen frequently, so it faces more indirect threats than direct ones,” he says.

Six key otter habitat hotspots have been identified in Lumbini’s Bardiya (Tikuligadh, Rajipur, Tihuni, and Chhedia) and Sudurpaschim’s Kailali (Phanta and Nuklipur). The project focuses on four key areas: community-based river management, livelihood diversification, strengthening governance and law enforcement, and developing a national otter conservation plan.

Along the Karnali River, 15 Community River Stretch Management Groups (CRSMGs) have been established, comprising 375 members—68 percent of whom are women. These groups monitor river health, promote sustainable fishing practices, and collaborate with government agencies to enforce regulations. However, challenges remain.

Buddhi Singh Tharu, a 59-year-old member of a river monitoring group, points to the dumping site on the banks of the Karnali River in Tikapur Municipality, Kailali, as a major source of pollution. “Garbage leaks into the river, affecting otter habitats,” he says. He also highlights the disturbance caused by motorboats operated by Rajapur Municipality in Bardiya, which are marketed as a tourist attraction but disrupt otters, dolphins, and other wildlife.

Livelihood diversification is a cornerstone of the project. By providing training and resources, the initiative is helping communities transition from river-dependent livelihoods to sustainable enterprises. On-farm initiatives include training in vegetable farming, betel leaf cultivation, pig farming, and fish farming, while off-farm programs offer alternatives such as hospitality training, handicraft production, tailoring courses, and driving instruction.

Sudha Chaudhary, a 45-year-old farmer from Bardiya, is one of the beneficiaries. She now grows tomatoes and chilies on her 500-square-meter farm and has seen a significant improvement in her income. “Last season, I made a profit of around Rs 50,000,” she says. “Farming has become our primary source of income, and we no longer rely on the river.” 

Program Associate Kapali states that the project team assessed the intensity of fishing activities and the dependence of families on the river before selecting beneficiaries.

Photos: WWF Nepal

The project also aims to strengthen governance and law enforcement by enhancing the capacity of government agencies to regulate illegal fishing and the over-extraction of river resources. Additionally, a national otter conservation plan is being developed to ensure long-term protection for otters and other aquatic species. “We’ve drafted a Smooth-Coated Otter Conservation Action Plan based on insights from 158 participants across 13 sites in Nepal,” says Kapali. “The goal is to create a framework that balances conservation with community needs.”

Despite these efforts, the project faces significant challenges. Pollution, illegal fishing, and habitat degradation remain persistent threats, and the success of the initiative depends on the active participation of local communities. To raise awareness, the project introduced Sakhi, an otter mascot whose name means ‘friend’ in the Tharu language, and selected 45 ‘Otter Champions’ to lead conservation campaigns.

Arun Sonaha, a 27-year-old Otter Champion from Rajapur-1, has been actively sharing his knowledge about otter conservation with other young people. “Communities have adapted their livelihoods to support otter conservation,” he says. Saraswati Sonaha, a 21-year-old tailoring trainee, hopes to open her own shop once her training is complete. “My family depended on the river, but I want to start my own business,” she says. “Otters should be protected for future generations.”

Kapali explains that the project has provided sewing machines to all 15 trainees and will offer additional support if they decide to start their own businesses after the training. “However, we don’t provide 100 percent funding. If they invest a share themselves, they will feel a greater sense of ownership,” he says.

The project’s impact extends beyond individual success stories. Three local cooperatives—Deuthan Krishi Cooperative, Sharad Saana Kishan Cooperative, and Shree Bindeshwori Cooperative—have been strengthened, offering loans, training, and support to over 180 community members. Bhagawati Shah, chairperson of the Sharad Saana Kishan Cooperative, explains that the cooperative provides loans of up to Rs 40,000 at a six percent interest rate without collateral to eligible beneficiaries who present a business plan. “Around 100 people qualify for these loans, and so far, 23 individuals have already benefited,” she says. The cooperative also offers training in pig, fish, goat, and vegetable farming, as well as tailoring. “Our goal is to help people transition from river-dependent livelihoods to business ventures,” she adds.

In Tighra, Rajapur-3, Maiti Tharuni, 60, is engaged in handicraft production. She was one of 18 women who participated in a 15-day training program on grass-based handicrafts, which included a buy-back guarantee. She explains that crafting a handicraft item takes anywhere from 30 minutes to four days, depending on its size and design. “There is strong demand, and we frequently export our products to Kathmandu, but we haven’t been able to meet the growing orders,” she says. “We used to make handicrafts before, but with this training, we now work in a more professional, modern, and efficient way, incorporating new and diverse designs,” she adds.

While the project has made strides in empowering communities and protecting otter habitats, its long-term success will depend on sustained efforts and collaboration between stakeholders. The challenges are significant, but the initiative offers a glimpse of what’s possible when conservation and community development go hand in hand. As Kapali puts it, “The goal is to create a future where both people and wildlife can thrive.” For now, the story of Nepal’s otters is one of resilience and hope, a reminder that even in the face of daunting challenges, positive change is possible.

The Nepali Army (NA) has addressed a letter sent to the United Nations by Devi Sunuwar, mother of 15-year-old Maina Sunuwar, who died from torture in army custody during Nepal’s armed conflict. Speaking at a press conference, Brigadier General Om Bahadur Bhatta of the Judge Advocate General’s Department (NA’s legal wing) stated that he did not understand why the Sunar family was still pursuing legal proceedings after a court ruling had already been made.

In a letter addressed to the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Devi urged Jean-Pierre Lacroix, Under-secretary general for Peacekeeping Operations, to urge the NA to demonstrate its commitment to truth, justice, and non-recurrence.

“The NA may argue that these officers already faced a court-martial on 8 Sept 2005 regarding my daughter’s killing. But let me be clear: a) under international human rights law, crimes against civilians should not be handled by a military court; and b) the court-martial only addressed improper interrogation techniques and improper body disposal,” she wrote.

“I do not understand why Sunuwar’s family is still pursuing legal action, claiming the verdict was either too lenient or too harsh,” Bhatta said. “The way the verdict has been obtained from the district court and the way pressure is being exerted at the national and international levels, it is unclear what their objective is.” At that time, under the Army Act 2016, the military court had jurisdiction over this case, and a decision had already been made, he added.

On 17 Feb 2004, a team under the command of Nepali Army Major Niranjan Basnet took 15-year-old Maina Sunuwar from her home in Katunje, then Kharelthok VDC-6, Kavre. She later died due to extreme torture by military officers. Her remains were found eight months later following pressure from national and international human rights organizations.

Brigadier General Bhatta stated in the press conference that the resolution of this case is expected to happen through the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC). “At present, there is the TRC, and its law has already been enacted,” he said. “If the commission is formed, maybe it will say something about this matter.” Since the case is under consideration at the Supreme Court, he refrained from providing further details, saying, “That is a matter for the TRC; the issue of jurisdiction comes under that. If tomorrow the TRC addresses it, it will be resolved from there.”

Later in 2004, the military court sentenced three army officers—Boby Khatri, Sunil Prasad Adhikari, and Amit Pun—to six months in prison and a one-year promotion ban for violating human rights and humanitarian laws in the Maina Sunar case.

However, dissatisfied with the military court’s ruling, Maina’s mother, Devi, filed a complaint against four officers at the Kavre District Police Office on 6 Dec 2005. After Nepal’s peace process began, a case was filed against four military officials on 21 Jan 2008 in Kavre District Court. On 17 April 2017, the court sentenced three army officers to life imprisonment for extrajudicial killing. It acquitted Basnet. This was the first case in which Nepali Army officials were convicted of a crime committed during the decade-long armed conflict that began in 1996.

The High Court upheld the ruling, but the NA appealed it to the Supreme Court. Khatri, Adhikari, and Pun are no longer in the army.

Devi informed the United Nations that some army officials had contacted her and proposed building a memorial in honor of her daughter. While she supports a memorial in Maina’s memory, she stated in her letter that she could not accept it unless certain conditions were met.

Major General Prem Dhoj Adhikari, head of the Department of Military Operations, clarified that no formal proposal had been made by army headquarters. “Rather, I heard discussions that if the issue could be resolved at the municipal level, a memorial could be built at an initiative of the mayor of Panchkhal in Kavre.”

Major General Adhikari also mentioned that the army does not have land for building the memorial and that the initiative was taken at the local level by the mayor. “The army does not have land for this; I think the mayor took the initiative to see if this could be resolved at the local level,” he said.

Although he acknowledged hearing about the letter sent to the United Nations, he stated that since the state has already enacted the TRC law, the issue should be resolved through it.

The Nepali Army (NA) has stated that it is closely observing the unfolding geopolitical landscape, particularly in light of the policies introduced by the newly-elected US President Donald Trump. Speaking at a press conference on Sunday, Major General Prem Dhoj Adhikari, head of the Department of Military Operations of the NA, emphasized that Nepal must assess the potential impact of major powers’ policy shifts on its security and economy.

“The policies adopted by powerful nations and evolving regional dynamics have far-reaching consequences,” Adhikari stated. “The Nepali Army is continuously evaluating these developments through a comprehensive strategy framework to address all security concerns.”

Trump’s return to the White House has raised global uncertainties, with expectations of significant policy shifts in US foreign relations, trade, and military engagement. Analysts anticipate that his ‘America First’ approach could impact US alliances and global economic policies, which may indirectly affect Nepal.

During the recently-concluded two-day meeting of the head of NA divisions, senior army officials including General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the divisions delved into the country’s internal and external challenges including Nepal’s strategic positioning amidst global shifts. The conference, attended by Chief of Army Staff General Ashok Raj Sigdel, reviewed national security challenges and emphasized Nepal’s need to adapt its strategies to emerging threats.

General Sigdel underscored the importance of maintaining Nepal’s military professionalism and preparedness while fulfilling constitutional duties. He stressed that Nepal must remain vigilant in the face of evolving geopolitical challenges, including technological advancements, climate change, and regional security dynamics.

Defense Minister Manbir Rai, who also addressed the meeting, highlighted the need for Nepal to assess the implications of global power struggles, ongoing conflicts and the rise of artificial intelligence in warfare.

Nepal is witnessing an alarming trend—its youth, the backbone of the country, are leaving in droves in search of better opportunities abroad. This mass exodus is not just a migration story; it is a consequence of economic disparity, limited opportunities, and systemic failure to retain its brightest minds.

Over the past three decades, nearly 6.8m Nepalis have received labor approval for overseas jobs (excluding India), with an estimated 1,700 leaving daily. The Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE) estimates that an additional 1.5m–1.7m Nepalis are working in India, while many others bypass formal channels to seek opportunities elsewhere. On top of this, over 100,000 students leave Nepal annually for studies abroad.

Despite Nepal’s economic growth in recent years, wealth remains concentrated in the hands of a few. Rural communities continue to suffer from limited access to quality education, healthcare, and employment. The lack of industrialization and sustainable job opportunities forces thousands of youths to seek employment in foreign lands, particularly in the Gulf nations, Malaysia, and beyond.

Even educated youths are struggling. Many university graduates find themselves unemployed or working in low-paying jobs unrelated to their fields of study. The mismatch between education and market demand has left an entire generation disillusioned, forcing them to look elsewhere for stability and prosperity.

The fourth Nepal Living Standard Survey report, published by the National Statistics Office in June 2024, shows that the unemployment rate climbed up to 12.6 percent in 2022-23 from 11.4 percent in 2017-18, representing a 1.2 percent rise in the five-year period. The unemployment rate has risen from 4.9 percent in 1995-96 to 12.6 percent in 2022-23.

The situation is even more dire for younger workers. Among those aged 15-24, the unemployment rate jumped from 7.3 percent in 1995-96 to 22.7 percent in 2022-23. The report said this highlights the challenge of finding jobs for youths in Nepal. 

The survey also shows that only 32.4 percent of the population is employed, while 62.9 percent are not in the labor force, and 4.7 percent are unemployed. These figures underscore the scale of the problem.

While average per capita income has risen significantly—from Rs 7,690 to Rs 136,707 over the past few decades—this growth has been highly uneven. The richest 20 percent saw their per capita income surge from Rs 19,325 to Rs 259,867, while the poorest 20 percent experienced only a modest increase, from Rs 2,020 to Rs 61,335. This stark disparity is a key driver of rising unemployment and mass youth migration.

Nepal’s income inequality, as measured by the Gini coefficient, has worsened over the years. In 2010/11, Nepal already had one of the highest levels of income inequality globally, and this gap has only widened since. By 2019, the income Gini coefficient had risen further, reflecting growing disparity.

Wealth inequality is even more extreme. The Palma Ratio, which compares the income share of the richest 10 percent to that of the poorest 40 percent, shows that Nepal’s richest 10 percent earn more than three times the income of the poorest 40 percent. Their wealth is over 26 times greater.

During the first Nepal Living Standards Survey in 1995, the poorest 20 percent of the population held only 5.6 percent of the total wealth, while the richest 20 percent controlled around 50 percent. The survey continued in 2010 and 2024, showing a rising trend for both groups, with the wealth share of the richest 20 percent now reaching 56 percent, says economist Chandra Mani Adhikari.

This uneven distribution of wealth has created a system where resources—education, employment opportunities, and access to capital—are concentrated among a small elite. Wealthier families can afford private schooling, overseas education, and business investments, ensuring their children access to high-paying jobs or entrepreneurial success. Meanwhile, lower-income youth, particularly in rural areas, struggle with poor educational infrastructure, lack of vocational training, and limited job prospects.

The government’s failure to address this gap has resulted in a labor market that systematically favors the privileged. Public education and vocational training programs remain underfunded, leaving many young people with few pathways to employment. Without robust skill-development initiatives, many are forced to choose between low-wage informal jobs or seeking opportunities abroad.

Economist Adhikari explains, “Once money began influencing Parliament and the government, policies started prioritizing large corporations over ordinary citizens.” In Nepal, economic policies heavily favor the affluent. “Big corporations and landowners benefit from tax cuts, subsidies, and easy access to loans, while small businesses and startups are bogged down by bureaucratic hurdles and limited financial support,” he notes. “This creates an environment where young entrepreneurs from lower-income backgrounds struggle to compete, reinforcing a system where only the wealthy can succeed.”

He further adds, “Nepal’s governance is controlled by a small, wealthy elite that designs policies to maintain their economic power.” Rather than focusing on industrialization or job creation, economic policies prioritize imports and service sectors dominated by the rich. The lack of industrial development severely restricts employment opportunities, forcing skilled and semi-skilled workers to seek work abroad. “A growing share of the service sector in GDP only exacerbates economic inequality,” Adhikari concludes.

Furthermore, while remittances contribute to nearly 29 percent of GDP, the funds primarily sustain daily consumption rather than being reinvested into productive sectors. The elite class, meanwhile, dominates high-profit industries like banking, real estate, and large-scale import businesses, limiting the economic space available for young professionals and workers to establish themselves.

The dependence on remittances has also created a paradox—while foreign employment helps individual families, it weakens the country’s long-term prospects by depriving Nepal of its skilled workforce. Many skilled workers—engineers, IT professionals, nurses, and hospitality workers—are leaving, creating a brain drain that could take decades to reverse.

Nepal’s literacy rate for youths (15–24 years) is over 90 percent, but many lack access to quality higher education or vocational training. During an interview with ApEx, former member secretary of the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) Ramhari Lamichhane said that the government has prioritized technical and vocational education, but it’s limited to policy documents. “It has stated that 70 percent of students will receive technical education, but there is no clarity on what kind of technical education this entails,” he says.

About a decade ago, there were around 800 institutions affiliated with CTEVT, but today, that number has grown to approximately 1,700. However, Lamichhane points out a concerning trend: When there were 800 institutions, 56,000 students were enrolled in technical education, but now, despite the increase in institutions, there are only 38,000 students.

A 2021 report by the International Labor Organization (ILO) found that over 60 percent of Nepali youths are either underemployed or working in jobs that do not match their qualifications. An estimated 1,500 highly skilled professionals—doctors, engineers, IT experts—leave Nepal annually for better opportunities abroad.

If current economic conditions persist, youth migration is expected to increase, with an estimated 600,000–700,000 Nepalis leaving annually by 2030. Nepal’s economy is projected to grow at a modest rate of four to five percent annually, which may not be sufficient to create enough jobs for its growing youth population.

“Only a handful of youths connected to the elites are benefiting,” says sociologist Pranab Kharel. “The elites are not only making money within Nepal but also taking it abroad, which means future opportunities are almost nonexistent, and it negatively impacts the youth.” According to him, this will not only widen economic inequality but also exacerbate racial, communal, and gender disparities, intensifying various forms of social injustice.

In 2019, the Prime Minister’s Employment Program was launched, but its impact remained limited due to poor implementation. In 2020, the government introduced a Rs 2bn Covid-19 relief package to provide temporary support for returning migrant workers. In 2021, amendments to the Foreign Employment Act were introduced to strengthen protections for migrant workers. The government then shifted its focus to digital employment in 2022, allocating Rs 3bn to promote remote work and IT jobs. But despite numerous political promises, the government has failed to create a sustainable environment for job creation and economic development. 

The Palma Ratio, which compares the income share of the richest 10 percent to that of the poorest 40 percent, shows that Nepal’s richest 10 percent earn more than three times the income of the poorest 40 percent. Their wealth is over 26 times greater

These programs, meant to support employment—such as youth entrepreneurship funds and skill-training initiatives—rarely reach the most vulnerable. Bureaucratic inefficiencies, corruption, and an unstable political climate further discourage young entrepreneurs and investors from staying in Nepal. Programs aimed at youth employment often lack proper implementation and fail to address the core issue: the absence of a thriving industrial and business ecosystem. As a result, despite various initiatives, youth unemployment remains high, and migration continues to be seen as the only viable path to financial stability for many.

Reversing the youth exodus requires a multi-pronged approach. Economic reform is crucial, with a focus on encouraging industrial growth, promoting entrepreneurship, and investing in key sectors such as technology, agriculture, and tourism to generate employment opportunities. Education reform is equally important, as aligning education with market demand and fostering skill-based training can help bridge the unemployment gap.

Government accountability is also vital. Creating a corruption-free and investment-friendly environment can encourage businesses to thrive and generate more jobs at home. Empowering youth by supporting startups, providing financial incentives, and ensuring a fair job market can help retain talent and reduce the outflow of young workers.

Nepali youths are not leaving just for money; they are leaving for dignity, security, and opportunity. If Nepal fails to address the root causes of economic disparity, the country risks losing its most valuable asset—its youth. It is high time that policymakers, businesses, and society work together to create an environment where young Nepalis see a future within their own country, rather than beyond its borders.