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Humans used to be hunters and gatherers for 2.5m years, they plucked wild fruits and hunted wild animals as they traveled. It all changed about 10,000 years ago, when they started to influence the lives of selected wild plant and animal species for their benefit. The transition from nomadic to agriculture proceeded in a stage which involved just a small change in daily life over a generation.

What changes?

Presently, agriculture is one of the main occupations in the course of human civilization, which is the origin of the first crop to the society known today. In the long run, people started living together for agriculture practices. Availability of enough food and protection in a society helps in further population growth within the community. Use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers lead to maximum crop production, which helped in reducing hunger but this manipulation altered the whole ecosystems, resulting in habitat destruction, decline in biodiversity, soil fertility and nutrient depletion.

As the human population is increasing, demand for food is also increasing and intensive methods of farming eventually are escalating. This results in decrease of useful crop pest predators and thus rise in pest outbreaks. These intensive modern agriculture practices lead to deterioration of the natural habitat and biodiversity of numerous plants and animals. The use of pesticides kills the keystone species, which agitate the ecosystem and risk millions of important species up the food chain.

Chemical pesticides have been used as a traditional method for pest and disease control. However, it impacts negatively on biodiversity, crop quality and human health. Alternatively, use of biological pest regulation instead of pesticides is the best solution in recent scenarios.

Biological pest regulation maintains its population under the limit over time. Until now, biological pest regulation mainly focuses on manipulating the behavior of pests and arthropods (natural predator). Approaches like using pheromones (chemical signals that insects release to communicate), disrupt their mating and changing foraging sites have shown success. However, arthropods as a predator, mobility is not so much, indicating this method is effective in specific areas only where these predators are present. While arthropods as predators are effective bioregulators, including specific species of reptiles and amphibians into this approach can improve the regulation of pest populations. Utilizing arthropods, along with reptiles and amphibians significantly helps in bioregulation of pests.

Amphibians and reptiles can survive in a disturbed habitat and use different resources. While hunting, predators consider the characteristics of the prey, such as what they eat, how they move and how they behave in their environment. These characteristics reflect how predators prefer to hunt. For example: some actively search while others wait and ambush their prey.

Reptiles and amphibians use their visual and olfaction (sense of smell) to track and identify prey. The characteristic hunting process directs the sensory faculty either visual or olfactory. For example, lizards and some of the amphibians that are active foragers use their smell sensory while ambush foragers like some species of iguanas depend on their visual. In specific cases like oriental garden lizards, they wait for prey to come close, wait for the movement of the prey to capture. They don’t react if the prey doesn’t show any movement or release any chemicals by the prey.

According to foraging theory, active foragers prefer stationary prey having relatively large size and are widely distributed over area whereas ambush foragers catch mobile prey and prefer small size prey found in grouped distribution. Ambush foragers have broader prey as a diet than active foragers because the chance of capturing prey is less and they cannot be selective as active foragers.

Another interesting behavior of reptiles and amphibians is that they use the surrounding environment as information about the prey and protection from their predators. They can create a cognitive map (mental representation of the environmental reminder), which helps to guide in their home range, locating their spread-out prey without searching randomly every time.       

Active foragers are good at spatial learning since they have larger home ranges and are always in mobility, which require these skills more than ambush predators. While ambush predators spend less energy in searching for prey, they eventually change spots with abundances of food.

This information can help in the agricultural field, to mobilize active or ambush predators according to the nature of the pest, and the size of the agriculture farm.

Conclusion

Agriculture fields with active foragers are beneficial as they are good at scanning their environment and forming memories about pest-infested crops/areas. For them, spatial clues like natural habitats, trees help in locating prey more successfully. Meanwhile, ambush foragers use local cues like distinct shapes or natural rocks to find and remember hunting spots. Keeping crop patches in the same locations helps both active and ambush foragers to create authentic memories of their surroundings, making them easier to hunt.

Protecting and maintaining their habitats for breeding and hibernation is also important. Amphibians prefer small water bodies with warm and sunny aspects while reptiles favor open areas for warmth and vegetated areas for dwelling. Their habitats should connect so that the population gets easy access to each other for biological activities.  Maintaining habitat with dense vegetation for shelter, creating edges with different vegetations to add up habitat diversity, and maintaining different height shrubs will provide camouflage during different activities.

Plastic pollution is one of the major contributors to the triple planetary crisis: environmental degradation, climate change and biodiversity loss. It also poses a threat to the ecosystem and human health.  The world generated 353m tons of plastic waste in 2019 which is twice the amount since 2002. Out of the total waste generated only nine percent was recycled and almost 50 percent was disposed of in landfill sites, 19 percent incinerated and 22 percent discarded and leaked into the environment and river system. 

Out of total waste generated in Nepal, 16 percent of urban waste consisted of plastic waste contributing to 2.7 tons plastic waste production daily. According to Bajracharya et al., (2022), 15 percent of the waste is managed inappropriately, either burnt or discarded in the environment. A study highlighted evidence of microplastic in diverse aquatic ecosystems.  A wide range of polymers are present in plastic waste such as polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyamide, Polystyrene (PS), and polyester. These polymers have adverse effects on the living beings, environment and some prove difficult to recycle.

Indistinguishably, the diverse aquatic ecosystems reveal microplastic presence exemplifying the need for awareness and research related to circular economy. In 2020, a waste management baseline survey revealed that the waste comprises 54 percent organic. This clearly demonstrates the potential of organic waste, primarily composed of biodegradable matter, to be transformed into valuable resources such as compost. Moreover, inorganic waste can be effectively categorized into plastics, metals, electronic waste, and other components, thereby facilitating tailored management strategies. 

As evidenced, plastic pollution is the major contributor to environmental degradation, threatening ecosystems, animals, plant species and humanity itself. Plastic leakage on the freshwater ecosystem causes a significant impact on aquatic life. Plastic is persistent in nature, and it contains high levels of toxic chemicals and resulting pollutants are transported around through the air and upstream. Waste management is a crucial issue that demands immediate attention. Uncontrolled disposal/dumping and open burning predominantly contribute to environmental degradation. The governmental bodies, the private sector, and NGOs face challenges for proper waste management of plastic. This emanates from the unmanaged collection, segregation and prevalence of open dumping/disposal coupled with lax policy implementation. Although policies have been adopted, their implementation is uneven, with certain municipalities enforcing few relevant rules while others entirely neglect them.

Human actions and consequences

Humans are responsible for most of the planet’s problems. The tendency of humans to encroach on the environment and undermine the ecological footprint has become susceptible to modern problems. Apart from the natural hazard, the pollution caused by human induced activities has vastly affected the planet following a suit of interlinked mishaps; climate change, global warming and impending doom. 

The degradation of plastic released into the environment leads to serious threats to biodiversity. Atmospheric agents such as abrasion, ultraviolet radiation and photo oxidation in combination with the bacteria degrade plastic fragments into the micro and nanosized particles. Scientists discovered the presence of microplastic in human stools, demonstrating how these particles are ingested and excreted by our bodies. Research conducted on human placenta reflected the presence of microplastic in human lungs, blood, placentas and breast milk. This highlighted the presence of micro-plastic from production to disposal, hence, constant exposure and intake of plastic threaten our well-being. The pervading nature of plastic is the reason for its increasing infiltration into the human body.

Impact of plastic pollution is not only limited to humans, but it poses a major threat to the terrestrial organism’s health including megafauna. As per recent research, the existence of macro- particles in the dung of the greater one horn rhino at Chitwan National Park has raised alarming concerns. Hence, Immediate actions and prevention methods are required for comprehensive waste management. Strategic plans are essential to mitigate the negative impact of plastic pollution and its sustenance in the long run. 

On a similar note, air pollution has become a prominent issue that has raised concerns and contested debates on “who did it” and “how it happened” among scientists and researchers. The myriad effects have become evident after the famously known “smog” has taken a storm in developed and developing nations. In China, smog affected the health and visibility of the residents. Similarly, in Nepal the level of air pollution has affected visibility, and the Government was forced to close schools for four days in 2021 and banned walkers in the morning concerning dangerous levels of air pollution.

Vehicle emissions and construction dust, coupled with Kathmandu’s geographic constraints, are the primary culprits behind the city's pollution crisis. Rising global temperatures are expected to intensify this problem. Air pollution is majorly contributed through human induced activities such as the open burning of plastic waste, backyard burning, and indoor air pollutants. According to research conducted by Kundan Lal Shrestha, almost nine percent of municipal waste is burnt in the open space including plastic and other inorganic waste. The study highlighted that out of 10 residents residing inside the valley, one resident burnt their waste either in backyard or open spaces. As a result, the practice of organic waste and plastic burning persists ubiquitously.

Ban on single-use plastic, awareness campaigns are the major interventions taken by the government. In 2022, the Kathmandu Metropolitan City implemented stringent measures to penalize individuals, with fines of up to 500,000 and legal ramifications under the Environment Protection Act. Different initiatives were taken by the government, but none of them was able to give a result-based outcome. For the purpose of filling in the gaps, several NGOs have taken different measures at different capacities.

Our intervention

Concurrently, CREASION has been working as a catalyst to bring change to the community through collaborative and sustainable approaches. Since 2005, our approaches have aligned towards innovation and compassion to protect the environment for a better future. We are working together with the policymakers and other private sectors to create a resilient, inclusive, carbon-neutral future which will lead towards net zero emissions by 2045, to support the long-term vision of the Nepalese Government. 

Similarly, we have been working in PET recycling since 2019, to mitigate the negative impact of plastic pollution. To date, we have successfully recycled 9343 tons of waste PET which significantly reduces the carbon emissions by 19,657.68 tons. We ensure waste reduction by integrating green recycling and preventing air pollution by cutting off carbon emission. 

In addition, we are also focused on empowering the informal sector by introducing advanced technology and promoting the transition towards a circular economy. It has been instrumental in encouraging youth, women, and marginalized communities, providing support and resources to help them embark on their entrepreneurial journeys. Formation of the waste smart school, educating and encouraging children towards sustainability and conservation of environment. 

Our efforts are not limited to recycling plastic and supporting the informal recycling sector. Empowering youth, advocating for environmental justice and collaborative effort to create a resilient environment is our fundamental responsibility. We are working together to beat plastic pollution and prevent the leakage of plastic into the river system to preserve the freshwater ecosystem.  To envision a better future, it's important to promote sustainable practices. Our efforts align with the sustainable development goals through the engagement of youths to be part of cleaning campaigns in the major hotspot areas, advocating at the local level and partnership with the policymakers to address the existing gaps in waste management leading towards sustainability.

Open burning is common in the context of Kathmandu valley especially during the winter season. To achieve the goal of a Clean and healthy environment for everyone, our sole objective is to minimize the negative impact caused by plastic pollution. Our work on empowering the marginalized communities, strengthening them through workshops and training, and mobilizing the youths as a catalyst and advocate for the environmental crisis has proved vital for the future generation and environment conservation. These sessions include the integration of the circular economy to improve the livelihood of the marginalized and vulnerable communities through the market value chain.

The interlinkages between the destruction imposed by humans in the environment originates from the individualistic behavior encroaching the wildlife habitation and the ecological footprint. The environment has a deep link towards humans and all living beings and vice versa. But the failure to recognize our interdependency has led to negligent behaviors and selfish motives to extract the resources from the environment and polluting the environment.  Human induced activities are directly linked to pollution and degradation in the environment, and this affects humans and animals as they all depend on the environment's resources.  Pollution is a double-edged sword given that human activities generate two primary types of pollution: point and nonpoint. On one hand, point source pollution, emitted from identifiable locations like factories and sewage plants, is easier to regulate in general. For example, smokestack emissions and industrial wastewater. On another hand, nonpoint source pollution is more diffuse, stemming from widespread areas like urban runoff, agricultural fields, or forests. This type is harder to control as it comes from multiple sources such as rainwater washing over city streets carrying pollutants into waterways. Both types harm air and water quality further, the environment in a larger context.

The predicament of plastic pollution pertains to over consumption, waste management and microplastic. Nevertheless, Nepal is facing a pressing environmental challenge due to the increasing threat of plastic waste to its pristine ecosystems, including the Himalayas and the Terai region. This has resulted in detrimental impacts on biodiversity and ecological balance. A comprehensive approach involving the government, civil society, and the private sector is crucial to address this problem. The key strategies include promoting reusable alternatives, implementing plastic ban or restrictions, strengthening waste management systems, promoting the 3Rs namely; reduce, reuse, and recycling of plastic materials. Furthermore, education and knowledge dissemination on the harmful effects of plastic pollution to the youths and public will be effective in practicing reducing waste and environment conservation. Through collaborative efforts, Nepal can work towards a plastic-free future, safeguarding its environment, human health, and economic development. 

Bitcoin has recently hit an all-time high as the entire crypto universe surges. The first cryptocurrency skyrocketed to a historic market cap of nearly 2trn, and US president-elect Donald Trump is receiving credit for this bounce-back.

The former president has now adopted a more crypto-friendly stance, unlike during his previous tenure from 2016 to 2020. Trump’s victory has positively impacted the market, pushing it into a bullish trend as predicted.

The world’s largest cryptocurrency, Bitcoin, was traded at a record high of $89,864.13 on Tuesday, according to Goingecko. Meanwhile, on election day, Bitcoin was trading in the $67k-$70k zone.

While the pro-crypto president has already been elected in the US, what’s next for the industry?

Crypto-friendly regulation anticipated

“If you favor crypto, you better vote for Trump.” This is what the elected 47th president said during a notable gathering at his Mar-a-Lago resort in Palm Beach, Florida, almost six months ago. Now, the US has voted for him, and the pro-crypto voters are anticipating more favorable regulation, unlike under Joe Biden’s administration.

The president-elect Trump has openly said that he wants to turn the United States into the “crypto capital of the planet.” He has reportedly started the homework for the preparation of a crypto-friendly stance.

The former president has already promised to “fire” the US Securities and Exchange Commission’s chairman, Gary Gensler. Under Gensler’s leadership, the SEC has taken a tough stance on crypto companies, filing fraud charges against FTX’s leader and leveling allegations against Binance for questionable business practices. The agency has also engaged in legal battles with Coinbase, Kraken, and Ripple, accusing them of not complying with federal registration laws, though all deny the charges.

US budget in blockchain?

Crypto and blockchain were not just Trump’s issues during the election campaign. 

Robert F Kennedy Jr, the former independent presidential candidate, was proposing the idea of putting the “US budget on blockchain.”

“We’re gonna have 300m eyeballs on our budget, and if somebody is spending $16,000 for a toilet seat, everybody’s gonna know about it,” Kennedy said.

He has not won the election; however, he is reportedly promised “control of the public health agencies” by Trump. It looks like Trump may have to battle with his advisers to take Kennedy Jr. under his wing; his idea may flourish. Kennedy Jr. is also strongly supportive of crypto.

Musk to lead DOGE!

Trump has appointed the richest man in the world, Elon Musk, to run a new Trump’s agency, the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE), together with Vivek Ramaswamy. 

“I am pleased to announce that the Great Elon Musk, working in conjunction with American Patriot Vivek Ramaswamy, will lead the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE). Together, these two wonderful Americans will pave the way for my Administration to dismantle Government Bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures, and restructure Federal Agencies—Essential to the ‘Save America’ Movement,” reads the announcement. 

The Tesla CEO, Musk, is always crypto-supportive and allowed to buy his electric car with Bitcoin for the short term. Furthermore, the tech billionaire has turned into a Dogecoin fan, causing many hikes of the popular memecoin.

DOGE, representing Dogecoin, is also the acronym for Trump’s new agency. It may not be a mere coincidence that it matches Musk’s favorite coin and the agency he is set to lead.

The new agency will focus on reducing government bureaucracy, cutting excessive regulations, and eliminating wasteful spending. This agency aims to implement structural reforms and an entrepreneurial approach to government, making it more efficient and accountable to the American people.

With a matching name, some Dogecoin involvement is expected under Musk’s involvement.

The available sources highlight a multitude of challenges confronting older adults in Nepal, many of which are deeply rooted in social and economic structures.

Many older adults in Nepal face financial struggles, stemming from limited opportunities to save or invest for retirement, especially in rural areas. While Nepal has implemented social security programs like the ‘old age allowance’, these often reach only a fraction of those in need. For example, only 20 percent of eligible individuals receive old-age allowances, and less than seven percent of eligible recipients receive government service pensions. This lack of financial security is further compounded by the fact that Nepal’s social security system is primarily focused on younger demographics, with maternal and child health taking precedence.

Although the government provides free healthcare to older adults in government facilities, access remains limited due to factors like ethnicity, income and literacy.  There is a lack of a comprehensive geriatric healthcare policy, and existing healthcare initiatives often prioritize younger populations. Additionally, despite a significant proportion of older adults experiencing health problems, many do not utilize healthcare services, highlighting gaps in awareness and accessibility.

Traditional societal roles for older adults are changing as Nepal undergoes modernization and experiences the influence of Western culture.  This shift can lead to feelings of displacement and social isolation for older adults. Ageism also plays a role in marginalizing older individuals, impacting their access to opportunities and perpetuating negative stereotypes.

Nepal’s rapidly changing demographics, with a growing older population and a significant youth population migrating abroad for work, further exacerbate these challenges. This demographic shift creates a ‘demographic window’ of opportunity, with a larger working-age population, but it also raises concerns about the long-term sustainability of social security programs as the older population increases and the younger workforce shrinks. 

The sources suggest this demographic shift could lead Nepal to become an ‘aging’ society by 2028 and an ‘old’ society by 2050. Economic factors directly shape the financial security of older adults, while also impacting their access to healthcare and social support. 

Social factors, such as changing cultural norms, ageism, and migration patterns, influence the social standing and well-being of older individuals. These social and economic factors are interconnected and contribute to a complex web of challenges facing older adults in Nepal.

The sources suggest that addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach that includes strengthening social safety nets and retirement security programs for older adults, developing a comprehensive geriatric healthcare policy that addresses the specific needs of the aging population, promoting awareness of ageism and challenging negative stereotypes and investing in community-based support systems for older adults.

These efforts require collaboration between government agencies, non-governmental organizations and communities to create a more supportive and inclusive environment for older adults in Nepal.

A growing older population

According to the 2011 census data in the sources, 8.1 percent of Nepal’s population (2,154,003 individuals) were aged 60 years or older. More recent data from the 2021 census indicates that this proportion has risen further, with the total number of older adults reaching approximately 2.5m.

The sources project a continued increase in the proportion of older adults in Nepal’s population: by 2028, it is estimated that seven percent of the population will be 65 years or older, marking Nepal’s transition to an ‘aging’ society. Projections indicate that by 2031, the proportion of older adults will reach 11 percent. By 2050, Nepal is expected to become an ‘old’ society, with 14 percent of the population aged 65 or older.

Several factors contribute to this projected demographic shift. 

Nepal’s fertility rate has decreased from 2.5 percent in 2001 to 1.35 percent in 2011. This decline is attributed in part to the emigration of young people seeking work abroad, further reducing the birth rate.

While a specific average life expectancy for Nepal is not mentioned in the sources, one source states that the mandatory retirement age of 60 is lower than the average life expectancy of 72 years. This suggests that people are living longer after retirement.

The proportion of older adults is increasing more rapidly in mountainous regions compared to urban areas due to factors like internal displacement, migration, social conflicts and modernization.

The sources emphasize that this demographic transition presents both opportunities and challenges for Nepal. The increasing proportion of older adults will require a reevaluation and strengthening of social safety nets, healthcare systems and policies to ensure the well-being and inclusion of this growing demographic.

Socioeconomic impacts

The sources portray Nepal grappling with the multifaceted challenges of a burgeoning older population. This demographic shift presents a web of interconnected social and economic pressures that demand attention and creative solutions.

A rapidly aging population places significant stress on Nepal’s social security system, particularly the ‘old age allowance’. While the allowance aims to provide financial support to older adults, it faces limitations. Currently, it only reaches 20 percent of eligible individuals. Furthermore, with the number of older adults projected to increase significantly in the coming decades, the sustainability of funding such programs is in question. The Finance Ministry has even cautioned about the long-term viability of providing these allowances.

As the younger generation migrates abroad for work opportunities, Nepal faces a potential decline in its workforce. While remittances from these workers contribute to the economy, the lack of skilled labor within the country could hinder economic growth.

This ‘demographic window’ of a larger working-age population presents a time-sensitive opportunity for Nepal to capitalize on this workforce and invest in development. However, the sources suggest there is a risk of squandering this opportunity due to slow economic progress and political instability.

The sources highlight that a majority of people in rural areas have limited opportunities to save or invest for retirement. This reliance on children for financial support in old age further underscores the economic vulnerability of older adults, especially as traditional family structures evolve.

Nepal’s modernization and increasing exposure to Western culture contribute to changing social dynamics that can negatively impact older adults. The traditional roles of older adults as knowledge keepers and caregivers are being challenged, potentially leading to feelings of displacement and a loss of purpose.

Ageism and discrimination 

The sources explicitly mention ageism as a pervasive issue in Nepal. This prejudice against older adults can manifest in various forms, including negative stereotypes, exclusion from employment opportunities and limited access to services. Institutional ageism, like the mandatory retirement age of 60 despite an average life expectancy of 72, further exacerbates economic and social vulnerability.

As younger generations migrate and family structures change, the sources indicate a growing concern about social isolation among older adults. This isolation can have detrimental effects on their mental and physical well-being, contributing to depression and feelings of disconnection from society.

Addressing challenges

Experts suggest a need to bolster social security programs like the old-age allowance to ensure broader coverage and adequacy of support. Encouraging intergenerational programs and activities can help bridge the gap between generations, foster understanding and combat ageism. This can involve engaging older adults in community initiatives, leveraging their experience and knowledge to benefit younger generations.

Promoting opportunities for continued learning, skill development and social engagement can help older adults maintain a sense of purpose and contribute to society.

The sources call for greater awareness and education to challenge ageist attitudes and promote respect for older adults. The challenges of an aging population in Nepal are multifaceted and intertwined. Addressing these issues requires a holistic approach that combines economic empowerment, social inclusion and a shift in societal perceptions of aging.

The challenges confronting older adults in Nepal require a comprehensive and collaborative approach involving government agencies, NGOs and communities. It necessitates a fundamental shift in societal perceptions of aging, emphasizing the value and contributions of older adults while ensuring their social and economic inclusion.