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Nepal’s military diplomacy has played a pivotal role in its survival as an independent nation, especially considering its geographic location between two powerful neighbors: India and China. Historically, Nepal’s military strength and diplomatic acumen have been intertwined to protect its sovereignty. 

The concept of military diplomacy in Nepal can be traced back to the (re)unification period in the 18th century under King Prithvi Narayan Shah. His diplomatic approach included maintaining friendly relations with both British India and Qing China, balancing their influence while expanding Nepal’s territorial boundaries. He famously referred to Nepal as a “yam between two boulders,” emphasizing the need for strategic diplomacy to navigate pressures from the north and the south.

In the early 19th century, Nepal’s military conflict with the British East India Company in the Anglo-Nepal War also known as the ‘Gorkha War’ (1 Nov 1814-4 March 1816) resulted in the ‘Treaty of Sugauli’, which reduced Nepal’s territory and established it as a buffer state. Despite the military defeat, Nepal’s ability to negotiate terms and maintain its sovereignty was a testament to its emerging military diplomacy. The recruitment of Nepali soldiers (Gurkhas) into British and later Indian military forces further solidified Nepal’s position on the global stage, as the Gurkhas became internationally recognized for their bravery and skill.

During the Rana regime (1846-1951), Nepal’s military diplomacy was largely influenced by its alliance with British India. The Ranas ensured Nepal’s independence by supporting British colonial efforts during the two World Wars, providing soldiers and logistical support, which further entrenched Nepal’s military relevance. After the fall of the Ranas and the establishment of democracy, Nepal’s participation in UN peacekeeping missions became a critical component of its military diplomacy. As one of the largest contributors to UN peacekeeping forces, Nepal established itself as a proponent of global peace and security.

Post-1950, military diplomacy became even more nuanced as Nepal navigated the Cold War era, maintaining a non-aligned foreign policy. The Panchayat era (1961-1990) under King Mahendra and King Birendra saw Nepal engage in more complex military diplomacy, with military aid agreements from India, China, the US, and the Soviet Union. King Birendra’s proposal for Nepal to be declared a ‘Zone of Peace’ reflected Nepal’s diplomatic efforts to assert its neutrality and avoid entanglements in regional conflicts.

A cornerstone of survival

Nepal’s military diplomacy has been a cornerstone of its survival as a sovereign state, particularly due to its strategic location between two regional giants—India and China. By adopting a neutral and non-aligned foreign policy, Nepal has successfully avoided being drawn into regional conflicts while benefiting from its proximity to both nations. This balanced approach has allowed it to maintain friendly relations with India and China, ensuring that its security interests are safeguarded without aligning exclusively with one power.

A critical aspect of Nepal’s military diplomacy has been its active participation in the United Nations peacekeeping missions. Nepal is one of the largest contributors of troops to UN peacekeeping operations, which has bolstered its international reputation as a responsible and peace-loving nation. This involvement has provided Nepal with a global platform, enabling it to forge strong ties with other countries, including global powers like the United States. By contributing to global peace and security, Nepal has enhanced its diplomatic reach and influence far beyond its size.

Moreover, Nepal’s ability to balance its relationships with major powers, including India, China, the US and other international actors, demonstrates its skillful use of military diplomacy to protect its sovereignty and reinforce its global standing in a complex and dynamic geopolitical landscape.

Military diplomacy in flux

In the contemporary South Asian geopolitical context, Nepal’s military diplomacy continues to evolve in response to the shifting power dynamics between India and China, as well as global trends. Nepal’s unique geographical location has placed it at the center of various regional and global interests, requiring the country to carefully navigate its diplomatic relations to ensure both security and sovereignty.

India, as Nepal’s southern neighbor, has historically had a significant influence on Nepal’s military and diplomatic affairs. From the 1950 India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship to regular military training exchanges, joint exercises and arms supplies, Nepal’s relationship with India is deep-rooted. However, in recent years, Nepal has also sought to diversify its military partnerships, notably enhancing its ties with China. The rise of China as a global power has encouraged Nepal to engage in more strategic military cooperation with Beijing, evidenced by the increasing frequency of military exchanges and aid programs. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has further opened avenues for cooperation, not only in economic infrastructure but also in military logistics and training.

The strategic significance of Nepal for China lies in its proximity to Tibet and India. As Nepal adopts a more balanced military and diplomatic approach with both India and China, it aims to leverage this relationship for its economic and military security without becoming overly dependent on either neighbor. Nepal’s military modernization, supported by China, includes supply of non-lethal military equipment and officer training programs, which, while modest in scale, reflect the growing importance of China-Nepal military ties.

Nepal’s military diplomacy is not confined to its immediate neighbors alone. It maintains close ties with the United States, especially through peacekeeping initiatives. The US has been a long-standing supporter of Nepal’s peacekeeping contributions, providing military training, funding and logistical support to enhance Nepal’s capabilities. Through this, Nepal has cultivated an image of neutrality and global responsibility, further strengthening its diplomatic posture in South Asia. Army Command and Staff College Shivapuri also invites officers from several countries such as Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Kenya, Nigeria, the Maldives, the UK and others apart from India, China and the US.

The global war on terror, growing regional militancy and border security issues have also added new dimensions to Nepal’s military diplomacy. As threats such as terrorism and cross-border smuggling increase, Nepal’s role in regional security, particularly in cooperation with SAARC countries, has gained prominence. Nepal’s membership in regional organizations like SAARC and BIMSTEC also emphasizes its commitment to collaborative security efforts in the region.

Conclusion

Nepal’s military diplomacy has evolved as a core component of its survival strategy, from historical conflicts and alliances to modern peacekeeping and regional security engagements. By balancing relationships with powerful neighbors like India and China, and global powers like the US and the UK, while participating actively in global peacekeeping missions, Nepal has positioned itself as a small yet vital player in South Asia. As the geopolitical landscape continues to shift, Nepal’s ability to maintain this delicate balance will remain crucial for its sovereignty and long-term security. Military diplomacy, therefore, will continue to be a cornerstone of Nepal’s foreign policy and its historical lifeline for survival.

Women in Nepali politics have faced significant challenges for representation, encompassing legal, cultural, and institutional barriers. Despite Nepal’s rich traditions and significant political transformations, from the abolition of monarchy to a federal democratic republic, women’s representation remains a persistent struggle. Legal advancements and increased awareness have made some progress, but deep-seated cultural norms and societal attitudes hinder practical implementation. Women politicians often encounter resistance from male counterparts and within their communities, where traditional gender roles are deeply entrenched.

Institutional barriers such as inadequate support systems, lack of political mentorship, and limited access to resources further underrepresented women in Nepali politics. Political parties, key gatekeepers to political power, often fail to prioritize gender inclusivity, resulting in fewer opportunities for women to rise through the ranks. This disparity is more pronounced in rural areas, where patriarchal structures are rigid and educational and economic opportunities for women are limited.

Moreover, women in politics frequently face gender-based violence and harassment from opposition party cadres, both online and offline. Despite these obstacles, many women show remarkable resilience and determination. Trailblazing women leaders in Nepal continue to push boundaries, advocate for gender equality, and inspire future generations. The struggle for women’s representation in Nepal involves transforming the political landscape to be more inclusive and equitable, changing mindsets, dismantling discriminatory practices, and creating an environment for full and effective participation in political processes. As Nepal evolves politically, the fight for gender parity in politics remains crucial, highlighting the need for continued efforts to empower women and ensure their voices are heard at all decision-making levels.

Historical context

The history of Nepali women’s involvement in politics highlights their enduring struggle for representation and equality, intertwined with Nepal’s socio-political transformations. Initially, Nepal’s monarchy and rigid patriarchal structures confined women to domestic roles. The 1951 revolution ended the Rana autocracy but did little to increase women’s political participation. Significant strides began with the 1990 People’s Movement, or ‘Jana Andolan,’ which led to a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, raising awareness about gender equality in governance.

The 1990 Constitution provided a framework for democratic governance but lacked substantial female political representation. Patriarchal norms and a lack of supportive structures impeded women’s full political participation. The 2006 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan II) abolished the monarchy and established a federal democratic republic. The 2007 Interim Constitution mandated at least 33 percent of legislative seats for women, a landmark decision. The 2015 Constitution reinforced this, ensuring women hold at least one-third of federal and provincial legislature seats.

Despite these legal provisions, cultural and institutional barriers continue to limit women's political participation. Activists and organizations are advocating for gender-sensitive policies and mentoring women politicians. While significant progress has been made, achieving gender parity in politics requires ongoing efforts to transform the political culture and ensure full and equal participation for women.

Key milestone

Since the advent of democracy in Nepal in 1951, the journey towards women's political representation has been gradual. The first significant milestone was reached on 27 May 1959, when Dwarika Devi Thakurani was appointed as the deputy minister of health and local governance in BP Koirala’s cabinet. Thirteen years later, on 16 April 1972, Kamala Shah became the second woman deputy minister, serving under Kirtinidhi Bista. On 16 July 1973, Kamala Shah was promoted to minister of state for health under Nagendra Prasad Rijal, marking another milestone.

A significant breakthrough occurred 37 years after the introduction of democracy. On 9 March 1988, Sushila Thapa became the first full female minister for health in Marich Man Singh Shrestha’s cabinet. This cabinet also included Chanda Shah as an assistant minister, marking the first time two women were part of the council of ministers simultaneously.

On 19 April 1990, following the people’s movement of 1990, Sahana Pradhan made history by becoming the first woman to hold the second-highest position in the cabinet hierarchy as the Industry and Commerce Minister in Krishna Prasad Bhattarai’s government. The trend of increasing female representation continued on 25 March 1997, when Sahana Pradhan and Bidya Bhandari were appointed as full ministers in Lokendra Bahadur Chand’s council of ministers, marking the first time two women held full ministerial positions.

Shailaja Acharya further broke new ground on 15 April 1998, by becoming the first woman deputy prime minister in Girija Prasad Koirala’s cabinet. During the second People’s Movement in 2006, Deputy Speaker Chitra Lekha Yadav, a woman, played a crucial role by chairing the parliament meeting in the ‘street’ and aiding in the re-establishment of the dissolved House of Representatives.

The first Constituent Assembly election in 2008 significantly increased women’s representation with 197 women elected. The 2013 election saw 176 women elected, and the federal Parliament elections in 2017 and 2022 had 90 and 91 women elected, respectively. While Nepal’s women’s representation in parliament surpasses that of many countries, efforts are still needed to advance women’s rights qualitatively.

In recent years, Nepal has achieved notable milestones in women’s political representation. The election of Bidya Devi Bhandari as the first female president in 2015 was historic. Additionally, Onsari Gharti Magar served as the first female Speaker of the House of Representatives from 2015 to 2018.

Sushila Karki made headlines on 11 July 2016, as the first female Chief Justice of Nepal, serving until 2017. Her appointment was a significant milestone for gender equality in Nepal’s judiciary.

On 14 Dec 2023, Nepal achieved another historic milestone when Sewa Lamsal, the senior-most joint-secretary at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was promoted to foreign secretary, the first female to hold this role in the history of the Nepali Foreign Service. On 25 July 2024, Lila Devi Gadtaula was appointed as Chief Secretary, becoming the first woman to hold the highest position in civil administration.

In diplomacy, a significant milestone was reached in 1956 when Bhinda Swari Shah was appointed as Nepal’s first female ambassador to India. In local governance, Nepal has made significant progress with seven women mayors, 276 women deputy mayors, 11 women chairpersons, and 424 women vice-chairpersons, totaling 718 women in top local government positions. However, patriarchal practices within political parties persist.

Despite these advancements, challenges remain. Women in Nepal continue to face patriarchal norms, violence, and economic barriers that hinder their full political participation. Nonetheless, the increasing number of women in political roles, supported by advocacy groups and legal mandates, reflects a significant shift towards gender equality.

Way forward

The quest for women’s representation in Nepali politics is a continuous journey. Despite making significant progress, various obstacles still stand in the way. Recent advancements, supported by legal frameworks and enhanced awareness, offer hope for a more inclusive and fair political landscape in Nepal. The sustained dedication of advocates, policymakers, and the general populace will be vital in ensuring that women’s voices are not only heard but also acknowledged in all levels of government.

Although legal provisions have advanced gender equality by reserving seats for women in local and national political bodies, the practical implementation of these provisions remains a critical challenge. Women’s representation in key decision-making bodies is still inadequate, with many being confined to deputy positions in local bodies and state minister roles in provincial governments. This suggests that political parties are not fully committed to meaningful female participation, emphasizing the need to move beyond tokenism and appoint women to significant positions within their parties and the government.

The struggle for women’s representation in Nepali politics continues, requiring ongoing efforts to overcome the socio-cultural and economic barriers that inhibit women’s political participation. In addition to being included in political ranks, women must be given meaningful roles and responsibilities by political parties. Education and awareness programs are pivotal in shaping societal attitudes towards women in politics, particularly in encouraging their participation from a young age and equipping them with the necessary skills and resources. Strengthening the legal framework and ensuring the effective implementation of existing laws and policies are crucial in protecting and promoting women’s rights in politics. Collaboration between government, civil society, and international organizations is essential to foster an environment where women can thrive as political leaders.

Power is not a simple concept as we may have thought, there are many types of power and there are many competing theories of power. A famous American political scientist, Joseph Nye, differentiates between two types of power, hard and soft power. Eventually, Nye introduces smart power as the ‘balance of hard and soft power. According to him, ‘soft power’ is the ability to get ‘others to want the outcomes that you want’, and more particularly ‘the ability to achieve goals through attraction rather than coercion’. There are three measures of soft power: Familiarity, reputation and influence. Culture, diplomacy, education, business/innovation and government are the elements that help assess the soft power of countries. This article looks at the soft power of India and Nepal and its role in shaping bilateral relations.

India’s soft power in Nepal

India is the fourth most powerful country in Asia pursuing a regional leadership role in South Asia. The influential role it has nurtured over the decade can be a game-changer for the region. In keeping with a changing world, India has used different bilateral and multilateral strategies to navigate the region toward a well-balanced future of prosperity and peace. In the 1990s, India started embracing a friendly policy toward its neighbors and projecting ‘soft power’ in the neighborhood. India’s soft power has traditionally been characterized by diversity. Historical accounts tell us that a prosperous India has drawn migrants, brokers and raiders like ‘Alexander the Great’. Its soft power has spread over millennia through a culture of secularism, liberalism and inclusiveness.

After Narendra Modi’s emergence as the Prime Minister of India in 2014, India has invested substantial resources in building up its soft power. We can say India has been more innovative in using its soft power since then. Bollywood, education, space diplomacy and diaspora are major sources of India’s soft power in Nepal along with our common heritages like Yog and Ayurved.  Globally also, India has been pushing Yog and Ayurved as a major source of its soft power quite successfully. Nepal can reap benefits from this initiative while enhancing bilateral relations. Giving continuity to a science in practice for ages, Modi is showing the world how to practice Yog. Nepal has also organized a series of Yog initiatives in the country of late.

India and Nepal share an open border, people from both sides can move easily, get married and settle down. The two countries have a large number of people, who are adherents of Hinduism and Buddhism. Thus, diaspora and religion are another most influential aspect of soft power. Moreover, religious tourism is the unsurpassed tool of soft power between Nepal and India.

Thousands of Nepali students go to India every year for higher education, especially in the field of medicine and engineering. Every year, India provides around 3,000 scholarships to Nepali students for various academic degrees like PhD, Master’s and Bachelor’s. India’s contribution to the growth of human resources in Nepal has been a key aspect of bilateral collaboration. Indian educational institutions springing up across Nepal are expected to contribute to bilateral ties by bolstering educational infrastructure of Nepal. 

A significant number of Nepalis visit India every year to avail themselves of better medical facilities. India has provided medical support to Nepal during natural disasters and health emergencies. Thus, health and education can be seen as another major source of India’s soft power in Nepal.

There is a huge interest in Indian music, cinema and television serials in Nepal. Many artists and professionals visit our two countries, enhancing the bond of friendship. 

Apart from this, Gurkha regiments have played a role in bolstering India’s defenses and the movie titled ‘Sam Bahadur’, based on the life of Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, is expected to shine a light on the contributions of Gurkha soldiers from Nepal to India’s defense and security.

Nepal’s soft power in India

Nepal has already established itself as a benevolent country on the world stage, which further strengthens its resolve to identify and pursue soft power. Some of the most notable and recurring themes of soft power that Nepal possesses are tourism, Ayurved, the Gurkha Regiments, Himalayas and Buddhism. This abode of peace—the birthplace of Gautam Buddha and Tapobhumi of Rishis and Munis—has been able to generate a lot of goodwill from around the world. 

A source of soft power for Nepal, the Gurkha soldiers become a formidable power for India when they become part of its defense capabilities. However, the newly-introduced Agnipath scheme has rendered Gurkha recruitments from Nepal uncertain.

Conclusion

Soft power projection can be a means to enhance Nepal-India relations. 

For India, increasing scholarship quotas for Nepali students and funding for Nepali educational institutions can be an effective way to project soft power in Nepal.   

Shooting of Bollywood movies in beautiful locations of Nepal can bring us revenues (also in the form of increased tourist arrivals from India), while also benefiting the Bollywood film industry by bringing down production costs.   

Religious-spiritual destinations like Pasupatinath, Muktinath, Janaki Mandir and Lumbini (Nepal) as well as Hardwar, Varanasi and Tirupati (India) draw lakhs of pilgrims from the two countries every year, holding a great economic potential. 

Home to a variety of herbs used in Ayurved for centuries, Nepal can also be an ideal location for hosting Yog conventions and retreats. The recent landing of Chandrayaan-3 into the Moon, which made India the fourth country to successfully land on the Moon, and the first to do so near the lunar south pole, has increased India’s soft power tremendously. India’s plans like the development of a satellite for SAARC member-states are likely to enhance its soft power in the neighborhood and beyond.