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Pramod Dhakal, PhD, is a board member of the National Innovation Center and the Nepal Science Foundation Trust. He is also the author of Reinterpretation of Eastern Philosophy (2019). He holds a Bachelor of Engineering degree from the Indian Institute of Technology and MSc and PhD degrees in Electrical Engineering from the University of Saskatchewan, Canada. Dhakal’s diverse career spans roles as a high school teacher, university faculty member, senior engineer, software developer, system analyst, software architect, senior consultant, senior scientist, head of a university department, and manager of engineering research and development. His work has primarily focused on teaching, software, telecommunication systems, and engineering research.

In this write-up, he presents a blueprint for innovation and human liberation in Nepal.

Planning

The National Planning Commission has released its 16th five-year plan for national development this year. It prompts a crucial question: “Seven decades of planned development! Where are we?” This also underscores a fundamental issue: planning without “systems thinking” can lead us nowhere. For too long, we have pursued “national development” without a clear definition of “development,” and without a clearly established national goal. Our fixation on economic development, blind to sustainability, self-sufficiency, and liberty has resulted in mixed results at best. Is there anything for which the world could come here to learn from? Do we have any largely aspiring national goals?

Right national goal

How about human liberation! This foremost human aspiration has eluded generations of planners. The current planning model, which glorifies a “GDP-oriented living” where we are called diligent and dutiful if we work hard and work for money. When life’s aim is financial wealth at the expense of well-being, we end up accumulating other collateral costs of hardship. When the value of intellectual richness and the pursuit of balanced life are forgotten, what we get is the current paradigm of development. And, in Nepal, a toil to mend the same old cloth. In such a system, human liberation becomes a lost cause. We become hardworking with no time to think about life, living, and liberation.

Hardworking: Basis for development

Not really. Not all hard work is equally productive. Hard work in intellectual spaces that drive science, philosophy, innovation, productivity, and system improvement brings tangible progress, but we are hardworking in physical activities and not in the work of the mind. People in rural Nepal are extremely hard-working, whether they are living in the villages or working in the Middle East, Malaysia, Korea, Japan, or elsewhere. People in developed nations may not work as hard as we do. But with all that hard work and toil, rural Nepal looks like a sinkhole of deprivation—financially, intellectually, and physically. Despite having vast potential for it, our villages are not attractive places for living in the age of knowledge, technology, and urbanization. Under the current mode of development planning, the villages are emptying out at an alarming rate, which is unfortunately considered normal. The rural economy is sick, and rural life is losing its attractiveness despite all the hard work.

Missing elements

Systems thinking is the most acutely missing element in Nepal. Effective planning requires understanding the complexity of the world by looking in terms of the wholes and their relationships. Nepal, however, is missing out on systems thinking and systems development. Rather, the country is being littered with plans for myriads of projects with a wishful thinking that they will automatically lead to systems improvement. This is making Nepal a land of projects and not the land of good systems. Consequently, Nepal has been left out in so many frontiers. Our model of development is akin to buying and making the best parts to make a car in the absence of system engineering. Collection of good parts does not make a functioning car without proper assembly. That is the reason why decades of disbursing grants for seeds, seedlings, plastic, and mini-tillers without systems knowledge failed to bring sustained improvement in agriculture and living. When a system is facing problems due to many interacting factors, only systems thinking and systems development bring desirable results.

Power systems thinking

The power is that it results in more fault tolerant and resilient systems. And, a robust system is better prepared to tolerate a faulty component but it is nearly impossible to build a robust component that can tolerate a faulty system. In the existing approach of planning, we develop projects hoping that they will improve our systems, which often does not happen. Why? When the fault is in the system itself, the value of improving a component may be little. In a project oriented thinking, one work may not even be mandated or funded to look after the other affected areas. It is allowed to assume that someone else is responsible to mitigate the collateral effects. Systems thinking focuses on the resilience of the whole system in which improvement of a component nearly always guarantees an improvement in the system. System thinking takes responsibility for the functioning of the whole system, and so is responsible also for collateral effects of one work on others. 

Example of system

Consider a “4444 system of living,” where a family of four lives on one ropani of land by integrating four different pursuits: four hours of work or earning, four hours of study, four hours of innovation or creation, and four hours of relaxation. This system is achievable with systems thinking but not with current planning methods. If Nepal’s 753 local governments were tasked with developing such systems and given the freedom to innovate, much progress would emerge. Such systems would be intellectually stimulating, attract talent, and offer a dignified way of living. This pursuit would propel us into intellectual development, human liberation, and advances in science and technology.

In a systems approach to planning, we would be earnestly recognizing the extent of our natural endowments or inherent strengths, which would otherwise go neglected. For example, let us look at a few of our strengths that have gone unrecognized at present.

Vertical space: The foremost innovative agricultural system in the world at present has been the “vertical farming system,” where industrialists and scientists are teaming up to create the basis for vertical farming using steel, glass, plastic, chemicals, electricity, water, and artificial light. Their infrastructures start depreciating from the day they are constructed. In Nepal, kilometers-tall mountains are created by nature, using never degrading materials, with an abundance of natural light, and water naturally flowing downstream. This infrastructure never depreciates. Who is better endowed for vertical farming than a country like Nepal? No one.

Solar radiation: In Nepal, on an average day, nearly 4,500 kcal energy is radiated on one square meter of land by the sun. Nutritionists say that an average adult human needs 2,000 kcal energy per day. Using science and technology tools, we can develop novel agricultural systems to convert solar energy into food far more efficiently than now. If one percent of solar energy is converted into food, we can get 45 kcal from one square meter. If so, 100 square meters of land could more than abundantly feed one person, without stopping us from making good use of the other 99 percent of solar energy. At that rate, we can feed a family of five persons on a land parcel of one ropani (508 square meters). It is an achievable target when we know most crop plants on average have photosynthetic efficiency of 1-2 percent, C3 plants up to 3.5 percent, and C4 plants up to 4.5 percent (see photosynthetic efficiency, Wikipedia). For example, corn, sorghum, napier, bamboo, azolla, duckweed, and spirulina have efficiency above four percent. Only imagine if we had a system marginally aware about this efficiency issue! 

One ropani agriculture: There are four ropani per person cultivated land in Nepal. If 16 hours a day of hard work can cultivate four ropani, in theory, four hours would be sufficient for one ropani land, making the above mentioned “4444 system of living” a no brainer. If our production efficiency was only four times more than now, we would get the current output in one fourth the land. But as mentioned above, a right system can make us food surplus at merely one ropani per capita. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), that efficiency demands a new system of agriculture and new living. That is achieved only through a system of thinking, which we currently lack.

System thinking in education and research: The main reason for why people are migrating from villages to urban and urban to abroad is the availability of better educational and job opportunities. When teachers are toiling in the farms or “passing time” on the internet in all non-teaching hours, when students are not finding educational curriculum that inspires them, and when parents are ignorant about the quality of education that their children need, we have ourselves a deadly combination for inviting the failure of an education system. But rural Nepal is getting just that. If each of our municipalities and its schools were collaborating to develop a novel system of living, say for example “4444 system of living”, imagine how much innovation could come out of Nepal and how inspired our population would be. Imagine if universities, colleges, and research centers were mandated to collaborate with those schools and municipalities, and were conditionally funded based on the level of their collaboration in developing such systems! Imagine if engineers, health workers, scientists, and people in a vast array of disciplines were working with students and rural people to develop such systems of living! We would be achieving a resounding level of growth in research, development, economy, and our intellectual prowess in 10 years of time.

Agricultural communities: Despite an unprecedented trend in urban migrations, Nepal’s majority population is still rural, i.e., largely agricultural. In those communities we are distributing “development handouts” on numerous, tiny, and non-integrated whimsical projects in dispersed areas through our federal, provincial and municipal channels without tangible outputs. Imagine that out of all the money Nepal is burning on rural Nepal through three levels of government, just 10 percent was used for the development of a “system of making a living in four hours on a ropani.” If the flow of education and research funds were tied to collaboration with agricultural communities in developing such systems, we would have developed so many successful and sustainable communities, schools, and economies. Spending money on a system approach would bring innovation-oriented and liberation-oriented development in Nepal.

Lagging innovation

Nepal lags in innovation due to insufficient systems thinking. Recognizing the interconnectedness of elements in a complex system reveals numerous opportunities for innovation and inventions. A culture of innovation driven by a mix of national goal and market demands, competition and accessible funding are lacking in Nepal. To cultivate innovation, we must overhaul development policies, focusing on creating “systems of living” that inspire system innovation. Grassroots people, institutional actors, and the government all play their roles in the innovation ecosystem.

Innovation ecosystem

Once a culture of innovation is established, you would find many drivers of innovation in action. In developed economies, for example, market demand alone can be the driver of innovation. One technological development can open the door to yet another, leading to further innovation. Companies trying to stay ahead of the competition also constantly innovate. Novel ideas have easier access to funding sources, such as venture capital, government grants, and other financial resources that support research and development. 

However, in Nepal, such systems are non-existent. In other words, like the ecosystem of the natural world, the growth in innovation and work of the mind also requires an “intellectual ecosystem” where people are seeking new ideas and ways. Therefore, we need something very compelling to develop the culture of innovation in Nepal. Firstly, we are sending talents to developed countries and never wanting them back. That is a problem. We ought to want those talents back. Secondly, lack of expertise is another problem. When regular people get a chance to start working with expert innovators, over time the ordinary people emerge as extraordinary innovators. We must, therefore, create opportunities to work with experts. Thirdly, if some experts were to come to Nepal, either they work on isolated projects instead of systems, or they do not find material or policy support. Fourthly, we are not enticed to build novel systems by governments and institutions through open challenges backed up by budgets.

Systems really think the way?

Yes. When a whole and functioning system of living is in the making, the complexity of the world is looked at in terms of wholes and their relationships. In other words, an entire system is considered, which is made up of many interacting parts. Then one system interacts with another system, being part of yet another system. Thus, in a systems approach, we can identify the root causes and not just the visible symptoms of our problems. We solve problems more effectively, address more interactions, and make more innovations and inventions in the process.

Summary

Nepal’s current way of development and planning falls short of fostering intellectual development and human liberation. To correct this shortcoming, and in recognition of the fact that the majority population of Nepal still lives in rural villages, we propose making systems of living where we physically work for four hours a day on one ropani of land to make an honorable living and spend the remaining twelve hours a day productively on the work of the mind such as study and innovation as our national initiative. That would make Nepal present an attractive alternative to the current world order, and excel in the space of systems thinking, making intellectual development, human liberation, and the development of science, technology, art, literature, and philosophy plausible pursuits. That would stimulate the minds of its people and make Nepal a land of knowledge. We would find meaning and fulfillment in what we do.

Krishna Khanal served as a Professor of Political Science at Tribhuvan University from 1979 to 2010. He also held the position of Executive Director at the Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies, Tribhuvan University (1994–95), and advised Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala in 1999. Engaged in contemporary political studies, he is an expert on constitutional discourse and frequently writes research-based articles on Nepali politics. Additionally, he is recognized as a civil society activist advocating for peace and democracy.

In this write-up, Khanal discusses the political system and the way forward, stating that our issues stem not from the political system itself but from our political culture and leadership.

Foundation

We are currently in a democratic regime, characterized by an open political system. This system began in Nepal with the revolution of 1951. It provided a vision for a political system. Although there were earlier attempts to overthrow the Rana regime, they lacked a subsequent plan for where Nepal would head after throwing out Ranas. The 1951 revolution, however, had a broader vision and succeeded, which is why I consider it a foundation. It provided a blueprint for Nepal’s political, economic, and social direction after the end of the Rana regime. From 1951 to the present, we have witnessed numerous political changes and the incorporation of many new elements into our political system. However, the 1951 revolution remains the foundation because the broader liberal and democratic values we uphold today originated from that revolution.

Nature

In our system, the constitution provides direction. When someone comes to power, the constitution guides them, and if they exit power, it is also dictated by the constitution. This is a fundamental aspect of our political system. However, there are unique features in our system that other countries might not have. For example, not all countries have federalism, proportional representation, or even a parliamentary system. The form of government and electoral system can vary greatly between countries, tailored to their specific needs.

Core values

Federalism, republicanism, inclusion, proportional representation and secularism are core values of our constitution. However, these values could be changed through parliamentary practice. Unlike some constitutions, ours does not have provisions for a basic structure or unchangeable elements. But if these core values were to be removed, the identity of our constitution would be gone. As intended, the constitution won’t function as intended.

Political practice

Political practice is influenced by individual behavior. Just as people have different orientations and exhibit different behaviors, political leaders do the same, which impacts political practice. When leaders do not comply with the legal and ethical principles of the constitution, our political practice becomes marred by unscrupulous actions. I believe it will be difficult to overcome this issue as long as the current generation of leaders remains in power, as they are the architects of this constitution and often see themselves as being above it. For this too, leadership change as expressed in periodic elections is essential for better political practice. Practice serves as a precedent that helps drive a nation. Over time, political practice can become more influential than the constitution itself. Therefore, the better the practice, the better the future.

Political culture

In the language of political science, political culture refers to how individuals engage with politics. This concept encompasses not only political leaders but also citizens. Political culture, also known as civic culture, involves how citizens learn about politics, their behavior, voting patterns, support or protest actions, mobilization of political parties, formation of leadership, and the alignment between popular vote and leadership, among other aspects. Since many behavioral aspects fall under political culture, it plays a crucial role in building a political system. A political system isn’t solely sustained by creating a constitution; the constitution is merely the foundation. The system itself must evolve, and this evolution is facilitated by political culture and practices.

Sustainability

Political practice builds political culture, and this culture sustains the political system. When parties, leaders, cadres, and citizens take ownership, it ensures the sustainability and longevity of the political system. For example, the Maoists, who once fought against the parliamentary system, are now a part of it. Their orientation and schooling were once different and contradictory to their current stance. However, their acceptance and ownership of this system is a positive step toward making it sustainable. Even though the concept of democracy once differed for democrats and communists, they now share a consensus on these core values. This alignment strengthens the political system.

Stability

We often hear the term ‘instability’ in discussions about our political landscape, but I don’t quite agree with that assessment. Our system itself is stable; it is primarily the instability of the government due to frequently shifting coalition partners to retain power that tends to be weak and unstable. Despite this, the power vested in the position remains consistent. Even those who were initially opposed to this system and constitution are gradually adhering to it. Therefore, our system is not inherently unstable. However, when the prime minister is weak and unstable, it affects many aspects, such as government plans and policies. Additionally, shifts in power at the central level often lead to similar changes in the provinces.

Coalition culture

Given the fragility of government longevity, our political system requires consistent electoral behavior, fostering a culture of coalition. However, in Nepal, we often see alliances during elections, but we lack a true coalition culture. Electoral alliances and coalitions are not the same, and this distinction is a major source of instability. Since the 2015 constitution, we’ve had two parliamentary elections, and neither indicated a crisis in the system itself. In the first election, the alliance of CPN-UML and CPN (Maoist Center) resulted in a two-thirds majority, and the parties even merged temporarily. Their eventual split was due to internal conflicts, not the system. In the second election, the Nepali Congress, along with CPN (Maoist Center) and three other parties, formed an alliance and secured a majority vote. However, they failed to form a stable government. The lack of a coalition culture has contributed to this instability, not the political system itself. If we had a sustaining coalition practice, it could provide a more stable government.

Citizen participation

We should appreciate the active participation of citizens in Nepal, especially in the political landscape. This level of engagement is rare in many countries. Since the revolution of 1951, there has been active, voluntary participation of people nationwide. In a democracy, mass participation is crucial. Despite not having compulsory voting, we consistently see an average voter turnout of 70 percent, indicating active civic engagement. Furthermore, the ability of people to protest freely is another asset of our political system. Also, we have observed voter shifts. While voter swings are normal in electoral maps, the last election highlighted a significant shift, with the rise of new parties and independent candidates. This phenomenon is also a strong indicator of active citizen participation in the political process.

External factor

The international environment significantly impacts a country’s political system. For instance, the global wave of democracy in the 1980s influenced our own democratic movements. Immediate external factors are particularly important for us. Being situated between China and India, their concerns have a direct impact on our political landscape. India played a direct role in our political changes in 1951 and 2006. These relationships are not always beneficial; sometimes, external factors negatively affect us. While India has long been a significant influence, China has recently become more involved. The roles of both neighbors are contradictory, further complicating our political dynamics. We can’t simply assert that we are a sovereign country and that no other nations can interfere with us. Our leaders need to practice proper diplomacy to manage our relationships with our neighbors, balancing their interests and maintaining their confidence. We should avoid leaning too heavily toward either China or India. Unfortunately, some leaders tend to engage in geopolitical swings between these two countries based on their own interests, which does not help us. Effective diplomacy and a balanced approach are essential for our nation's stability and growth.

Kishore Thapa is a former government secretary, who served in the Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Election Commission, and Water and Energy Commission. He has a bachelor’s degree in architecture from Calcutta University and master’s degree in urban planning from School of Planning and Architecture, Delhi. He was a Humphrey Fellow at Rutgers University, USA, in 2003/04. Thapa is also the past president of the Society of Nepalese Architects (SONA) and current chairperson of South Asian Association of Architects (SAARCH). He also serves as the chairperson of the Architecture Subject Committee as well as advisor to Kathmandu University. 

In this write-up, Thapa shares his thoughts about mega projects, their development, and challenges.

History of mega projects

The famous pyramids of Egypt can be considered as a mega project. It was implemented about 5,000 years ago and may have taken many years of hard labor of thousands of workers. Similarly, the Great Wall of China is another good example of a mega project. This project was initiated in 400 BC and was completed in 1600 BC spanning a time span of 2,000 years. The Colosseum of Rome built in 80 CE is another example of a mega project of the Roman period. 

In the modern times the Suez Canal in Egypt, Panama Canal in Panama, Trans-Siberian Railway line in Russia, Inter-state Highway network in the United States, Empire State Building in New York, USA (which was the tallest building in the world at that time), Eiffel Tower in Paris, France, Shinkansen Railway line in Japan, Grand Trunk Road in India were some of the examples of mega projects in 19th and 20th century. With the advancement of science and technology ,several mega projects are being launched in developed as well as developing countries. These include airports, express highways, water management system, stadium, city development, energy production and space technology. The largest mega project of our time with a cost of $150bn is the development and maintenance of the International Space Station in 15 countries. There are several mega projects under implementation in China, India and West Asia.

Importance

Generally mega projects are planned and executed for achieving economic growth and prosperity in a shorter period of time by investing huge financial, technological and human resources. Such projects during its implementation phase generate large scale employment and promote business activities. After completion, benefits of such projects include higher revenue for the government, improvement in  mobility of goods and people, energy security, and improvement in physical and social well-being of the people. The scale of the projects depends upon financial capacity, technical competence, political will and commercial viability. There are several mega projects in our neighboring countries—India and China. Both of these countries are investing huge amounts of money in highways, railways, water ways, airports, urban development, water resource management and space exploration. Since implementation of mega projects requires a higher level of technical and management competence, it is very likely that a single country may not be able to handle it alone and require international assistance.

Mega projects of Nepal

Nepal entered into the modern era of development only after 1950. However, during the Rana period also some remarkable infrastructure projects were implemented. Those included Raxaul-Amlekhgunj Railway, Janakpur-Jayanagar Railway, Dhorsing-Matatirtha Ropeway, Pharping Hydroelectricity project, Sundarijal Hydroelectricity project, Motorable Tunnel at Chure hill along Bhimphedi-Amlekhgunj Road, construction of Rana Palaces in Kathmandu Valley including the famous Singha Durbar. After the advent of democracy in the country in 1950, the Tribhuvan Highway was the first mega project implemented with the financial and technical assistance of India. This highway linked the capital city of Kathmandu to the border town of Birgunj. This project was followed by Kathmandu-Kodari Highway (Arniko Highway), Pokhara-Sunauli Highway (Siddhartha Highway), East-West Highway (Mahendra Highway). Similarly, in the water resources sector, Koshi and Gandak projects were implemented. Considering the coverage of geographical area, time and cost, these can  be considered as the mega projects of that time. In the electricity sector Trishuli Hydroelectricity project followed by Kulekhani and Kali Gandaki Hydro-electric Projects were also considered as a mega project a few decades ago.

Recent mega projects

In recent times, Upper Tamakoshi Hydro-electricity Project (456 MW) is the largest electricity project completed so far. Considering the complexities, coverage and cost, the Melamchi Water Supply Project  is the largest mega project Nepal has completed so far. Although only the first phase of the  project is completed so far, it can boast of the longest tunnel (26 km) in South Asia and one of the longest water supply tunnels in the world. In the irrigation sector, mega projects like Bheri-Babai diversion and Sunkoshi-Marin diversion projects are under implementation. The Gautam Buddha International Airport Project and Pokhara Regional International Project in Pokhara, both of which are already completed, are also some of the largest megaprojects of the country. In the building sector, the recently completed 18-story high Damak Tower in Jhapa is the tallest building in Nepal. The Federal Parliament Building at Singha Durbar premises is probably the largest building project of our time.

Nepal is undertaking ambitious infrastructure projects with the financial and technical assistance from multilateral donors like Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and bilateral donors like India, China and Japan. With improved technical capability of government and private institutions, consulting and contracting companies, Nepal’s capability in undertaking large mega projects has improved significantly. In several cases Nepal has demonstrated its capability in undertaking mega projects on its own. Upper Tamakoshi Hydroelectricity project, Sikta Irrigation Project, Bheri-Babai Diversion Project and Sunkoshi-Kamala Diversion Project are good examples. These projects are  fully financed and managed by Nepal’s own resources.

Some of the mega projects in pipeline are Nijgadh International Project, Karnali Chisapani Hydroelectricity Project, Budhi Gandaki Hydroelectricity Project, West Seti Hydroelectricity Project, Beni-Muktinath Cable Car Project (undertaken by private sector), Widening of East-West Highway, Raxaul-Kathmandu Railway Project.

Challenges for implementation

There are several challenges for undertaking mega projects. First of all, it demands huge financial resources. Nepal’s GDP of about $46bn and government’s annual budget of about Rs 1.86trn (about $14bn) cannot support mega projects similar to that of developed countries. The capacity of   government institutions, in terms of capital expenditure, is much lower compared to neighboring countries. The private sector of Nepal is not fully developed and has its own limitations in terms of  financing and management capacity.

Another important challenge for undertaking mega projects is the environmental factor. Nepal lies in a highly seismic zone and is prone to multi-hazards such as earthquake, landslides, flood, forest fires and lightning. Most of the physical infrastructure is damaged every year due to monsoon floods and occasional earthquakes. Water-induced disaster is the most formidable threat to the physical infrastructure. Therefore, environmental vulnerability has to be duly considered while conducting feasibility study of mega projects. The cost and time overrun of the infrastructure projects in Nepal is a common phenomenon and one of  its causes is  water induced disasters. Such disasters not only impede the pace of construction but also destroy the completed infrastructure. The flooding of the Melamchi river and its impact in the headworks of the Melamchi Water Supply Project two years ago has given us big lessons for undertaking mega projects in mountainous  regions. Nepal’s major hydro-power projects are vulnerable to Glacier Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) as well as monsoon floods and landslides.

Political instability

Nepal is passing through political and social unrest for many years and it is the major impediment for smooth implementation of mega projects. Projects in Nepal suffer from political rivalry, extortion by political cadres, obstruction by the local community and controversy raised by environmentalists. While conducting feasibility studies, such issues seldom arise but it comes to the surface when construction works start. In recent times, geo-political  factors are also playing a significant role in implementation of infrastructure projects in Nepal. The projects under MCC and BRI as well as Bhairahawa and Pokhara International Airport Projects are some of the visible examples of geo-political rivalry.

Blueprint for mega projects

In order to achieve our national goal of ‘Happy Nepali and Prosperous Nepal’, we need to invest heavily on infrastructure projects in energy, irrigation, drinking water supply, urban development, roads, railway, air connectivity, health facilities, educational establishments, tourism, cultural and natural resources management. We have to graduate from least developed countries to middle income countries in a real sense and improve the quality of life of our people. Instead of projects driven by petty political interests, we have to identify and prioritize projects which are cost effective, environmentally and financially sustainable, resilient and inclusive. In order to stand for our commitment to be a carbon neutral country by 2050, we have to adopt the principles of green growth, resilient  and inclusive infrastructure development.

Energy sector

In the energy sector,we need to invest in large multi-purpose hydro-power projects such as Budhi Gandaki, Karnali Chisapani and West Seti Projects. These projects shall be designed not only for electricity generation but also for flood management, fisheries development, irrigation, drinking water and tourism promotion. Since a part of the benefit of these projects  goes to India, we have to engage them in financing and technical support in the implementation of these projects. It would be a historic blunder to seek loan from the World Bank or ADB in implementing the projects and providing its benefits to India free of cost. Similarly, high voltage transmission lines which can support in evacuating energy from existing hydro-power projects both for domestic and export purposes shall be given high priority.

On the water resources management, completion of the second phase of Melamchi Project, Bheri Babai  Diversion, Sunkoshi-Kamala Diversion, commencement of  Nagmati Dam on the northern part of Kathmandu Valley shall be a priority.

Transportation

In the highway sector, upgrading of the existing Mahendra Highway from Jhapa to Kanchanpur to  a six-lane carriageway to Asian highway standard should be a priority project. While upgrading this highway, all the amenities required for drivers and passengers shall be available and concurrent urban development projects in the adjoining towns and cities shall be undertaken. The East-West Highway shall be connected to north-south feeder roads leading to Indian border in the south and Chinese border in the north. The existing Mid-hill highway shall be completed throughout its length and development of towns on the cross roads shall be initiated . Those towns shall serve as the center of tourism (hill stations), education, health and agriculture markets and encourage people to invest in hilly areas.

In the air transport sector, construction of the proposed Nijgadh International Airport shall be commenced. This airport will be the only full-fledged international airport of the country which can cater to all kinds of aircraft and function as a transit hub for airlines operating flights from Korea, China, Japan to West Asia and Africa. We should know that the existing Tribhuvan International Airport has severe limitations in international flights due to its geographical location and infrastructure. Similarly, Pokhara and Bhairahawa airports have their own limitations in handling larger passenger and cargo aircrafts. In a land locked country like Nepal, air connectivity is a critical infrastructure whose benefits will be visible during major disasters and economic blockade. Hence a full-fledged international airport is critical for maintaining its international connectivity by air.

In the urban development sector, development of smart cities and upgradation of existing cities shall be given high priority. This is very important because urbanization is inevitable and growth of unplanned cities leads to environmental disasters, pandemics, civil unrest and severely jeopardizes the well-being and productivity of the people. Development of national capital Kathmandu, tourism capital Pokhara and religious capitals of Janakpur and Lumbini shall be given high priority. Similarly, development of cross- road cities along Mahendra Highway, Mid Hill Highway (Pushpa Lal Highway) is equally important.

Conclusion

In order to plan and execute mega projects, there is a need for political stability, policy consistency, sustainable financial system and technical and managerial capability of government and private sector. Nepal may seek international assistance in complex projects like metro train, flyovers, airports and energy projects but it can venture on its own resources in other projects like highways, urban development and water resource management. Prior to undertaking any mega project the government shall invest on institutional, financial and human capital development.

When identifying and implementing mega projects, it is also essential to minimize environmental impacts in the context of climate change and the socio-cultural landscape. Balancing geopolitical interests to foster national development, ensuring a long-term strategy for economic growth and sustainability, maximizing employment generation and technological advancement, and harnessing the country’s natural and human resources are crucial. Additionally, involving the local community and stakeholders in the project’s design and implementation is imperative to ensure its success and acceptance.

Meena Poudel is a sociologist who has a long and committed history of development works, research and feminist activism on issues affecting lives of socially excluded and politically marginalized groups in Nepal and other parts of the south, southeast and central Asia, western Europe, and North Africa. She has worked for various national and international organizations including Oxfam GB, USAID, UN systems and academia. She is also the first Nepali woman to head an international organization in Nepal—Oxfam.

Poudel did her PhD from UK’s Newcastle University and has worked as a senior visiting research fellow with Newcastle University for several years. In recent years she has been engaging more on exploring various aspects of the lives of women, men and children vulnerable to and experienced migration in the global south in her capacity as member of the global advisory board of Migration Development and Equality, a large and multiyear academic research project funded by the British government. She has written widely on these issues that include a single-authored book, “Dealing with Hidden Issues: Social Rejection Experienced by Trafficked Women in Nepal”, which has been published in six different languages.

According to Poudel, Nepal’s foreign policy has scope of political and business diplomacy but lacks labor diplomacy. And one way to respond to challenges faced by migrants is to have an integrated migration policy that includes labor diplomacy and the contextual role of embassies.

Migration in Nepali context 

Migration, labor migration in particular, has been an important factor supporting the growth and development of Nepal and providing much needed employment opportunities for young Nepali unemployed youths in global labor markets of more than 150 countries. Organized labor migration began between Nepal and India since the British colonial regime in India started recruiting Nepali youths in their armies which was expanded for ordinary Nepali after having a friendship treaty in 1950. Nepal adopted liberal economic policy in late 1980 and changed the political system in 1990 to a liberal democracy. Since then migration for foreign employment has gained momentum in a more organized way and remittances became a part of the national economy.  

Data and research

The Government of Nepal has kept data on labor migration since 2008 only. Although currently about 6.5m workers are in foreign employment, this official data published by the Ministry of Labor does not count migrants working in India due to absence of a migration regulatory mechanism in place between two countries. In addition, migrants who leave the country without having a work permit from the government but following informal channels including human smuggler, traffickers and also man power companies taking workers out of the country without following government mechanisms are also not included in this official data. Various researches indicate that millions of Nepali youths, predominantly men, are working in India alone and tens of thousands are in other countries around the world who migrated for employment following informal, trafficking and smuggling routes. Thus, available data from the government is incomplete.

Migration and development nexus

Nepal’s traditional foundation of economy has gradually been shifting from agriculture to a service sector which, arguably, is dependent on remittances generated by Nepali migrants working abroad. So migration is a key pillar of Nepal’s development resources from family to national budget. Migration is an intrinsic part of broader processes of development. More clearly, migration generally and labor migration in particular contributes significantly to human development, shared prosperity, and address poverty. Poverty in the context of migration goes beyond traditional understanding of poverty that is predominantly a financial aspect. But migration and development discourse includes broader social change, cultural transformation and political awareness for both the countries of origin from where migrants come from and destinations of destination where migrants are employed for. 

When we talk about remittances, we should go beyond the financial definition of remittances. Migrants learn new skills, gain cultural knowledge, enhance technical skills, become aware about rights and welfare of migrants and gain confidence to deal with life challenges while dealing with a complex and competitive labor market. These are social capital one brings back home and apply in post migration journey and contribute to broader social change.

Integrated migration policy framework

Nepal is a remittances dependent economy but lacks migration policy. Nepal’s current policy framework to govern migration by foreign employment act and host of institutions, being coordinated by the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security (MoLESS) as the apex structure in setting policy on and supported by various relevant thematic sub-structures from local to the federal level. Foreign Employment Act is essentially promoting foreign employment and facilitating recruiting agencies rather than managing migration by focusing protection concerns and enhancing justice to migrants and their families. Considering the role of financial, social, cultural and technical remittances migration generates for the home country, volume of migrant communities and nature work available in the destinations, it is crucial that Nepal government formulate an integrated migration policy framework to maximize benefits of migration and ensure welfare of working migrants and their families staying back.    

Better protection

Nepali migrants are relatively low skilled, less aware about vulnerabilities they face in highly competitive labor markets. Even their migration journeys are being facilitated by government regulated recruiting agencies but contractual fraud, wage discrimination, trafficking, sexual and gender based violence against migrant women, cheating in migratory cost, false promises, health and safety concerns are key challenges Nepali migrants face. Some of these challenges are Nepali institutions that are related to recruiting agencies, various departments and immigration services and some are related to discriminatory practices of employer and labor market of destination countries. These challenges can be addressed by making migrants skilled according to the needs of changing labor markets and raising awareness among migrants about their rights and responsibilities at work. 

Ratification of relevant UN conventions

Nepal is signatory of many relevant UN conventions that are important to protect rights of citizens but has not yet ratified two key conventions crucial to manage migration and protect the rights of migrants in general and migrant domestic workers in particular. ILO Convention 189 is important for welfare of migrants’ domestic workers, predominantly women and migrants’ rights convention is fundamental for protection of all migrants’ workers. These conventions are foundational mechanisms to address various injustices and challenges throughout migration processes. It is important that Nepal should ratify these two key conventions without any delays and formulate an integrated migration policy framework.

Cross border migration with India 

Indo-Nepal migration has been significant to create job opportunities for millions Nepali laborers but they are neither counted as migrants nor their remittances are accounted for by the national economy. Lack of acknowledging their status limits any benefits or justices that Nepal migration governance covers. Later or sooner Nepal has to address this issue and integrate cross border migration into migration definition, maximize their benefits into national development and respond to their challenges without any discrimination. It is also important to note that labor migration to India are predominantly low income, unskilled and seasonal, short term to medium term migrants. Some research shows that migrants who generated some financial resources, they plan to go to Arab and other destinations.

Female migrants

My research and program development experiences in various countries of south, south east and central Asia, eastern Europe and north Africa suggest that migrant women are most vulnerable due to social perceptions on their sexuality and migrant status. Regardless of their types of migration, women are immediately seen as migrants working in sex sector, trafficked women, and domestic workers experienced sexual abuses etc. This negative narrative is not true. Any migrants regardless of their gender and sexual orientation may encounter various forms of abuses including sexual. It is true however women migrants face more gender and sexual violence than men because of unsafe labour market but migrants women are also migrants like their male counterparts and work in various sectors including hospitality, marketing, tourism, transportation sector and electronic companies. While migrant women face more abuse than men at work, they also face social and cultural stigma on their return by their own family, neighbors and wider society. This stigma is high for those migrant women who return with less financial remittances. To address this stigma, we need to make the wider public aware about the role of female migrants in their family and wider social development.     

Migration is not to stop

Many Nepali politicians talk about stopping migration, particularly during the elections but this is false promises and lack of understanding on migration phenomenon. Migration is part of liberal democracy and market oriented economic policies which is the foundation of our current political governance, development framework and pillar of economy. So, proper management through relevant, migrant friendly migration policy and harnessing benefits from migration is the ultimate approach a country like Nepal needs to adopt.      

Coordination and cooperation

To conclude, when we talk about integrated migration policy, this also emphasizes proper coordination among government stakeholders such as ministry of labor foreign employment and social protection, ministry of women, children and senior citizens, ministry of foreign affairs, ministry of home affairs, ministry of law, ministry of finance and national planning commission. This coordination also needs to be at provincial and local level. So vertical and horizontal coordination within government institutions and with relevant NGOs, migrants rights organizations and recruiting agencies is crucial for safe and dignified migration management and maximize benefits of migration in development plans of Nepal.