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The rich tapestry of world music and its enduring connection to folk traditions have woven a narrative of cultural resilience and artistic innovation across the globe. From the streets of New York City to the remote villages of Nepal, the echoes of folk melodies resonate with a timeless authenticity, bridging continents and generations. In this exploration, we delve into the multifaceted landscape of world music, tracing its evolution through the folk revival of the 1960s to contemporary expressions that redefine cultural boundaries and celebrate diversity.

Folk revival of the 1960s: A cultural renaissance

The 1960s marked a pivotal moment in the history of folk music, characterized by a fervent revival of interest in traditional musical forms. This resurgence was fueled by a generation seeking authenticity and connection in a rapidly changing world. At the forefront of this movement were iconic figures like Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, whose impassioned performances breathed new life into age-old ballads and protest songs.

Ben Corbett, a music journalist, reflects on the prominence of Dylan and Baez during this period, noting their role as torchbearers of the folk revival. Their music served as a rallying cry for social change, resonating with audiences who yearned for songs that spoke to the struggles and aspirations of ordinary people. Yet, the folk revival was not without controversy, as debates raged over the perceived dilution of folk music with the introduction of electric instruments and commercialization.

The Webster dictionary defines folk music as music originating from traditional culture, often passed down orally from generation to generation. However, as Kim Ruehl, a folk music writer, observes, the folk revival of the 1960s represented more than a mere renaissance of old songs. It was a catalyst for artistic exploration and cultural exchange, as folklorists documented diverse musical traditions, filmmakers compiled anthologies, and performers like Pete Seeger traversed the country, sharing their music with audiences far and wide.

Essence of folk music: Tradition, innovation, and authenticity

As the folk revival unfolded, the definition of folk music became a subject of intense scrutiny and debate. Traditionalists argued for the preservation of authentic folk traditions, while others embraced innovation and evolution within the genre. Alynda Segarra, the creative force behind Hurray for the Riff Raff, offers a nuanced perspective, suggesting that the essence of folk lies not in its musical style but in its message.

For Segarra, folk music is a vehicle for storytelling and social commentary, transcending genre boundaries to convey universal truths and experiences. In this light, the authenticity of folk music is not defined by adherence to a particular sound or style but by the sincerity and relevance of the artist's message. This redefinition of folk music resonates deeply with contemporary artists like Raithane, a Nepali group that infuses ethnic folk traditions with modern sensibilities to create music that speaks to the human condition across linguistic and cultural divides.

Jhuma Limbu, one of the founders of Raithane, shares her journey of discovery and creative expression, highlighting the role of travel and cultural immersion in shaping her artistic vision. Like Segarra, Limbu views folk music as a means of connecting with shared experiences and emotions, transcending geographical and cultural barriers to forge meaningful connections with audiences around the world.

Global impact of folk music: From Nepal to New York

While the folk revival of the 1960s may have originated in America, its influence reverberated across the globe, inspiring artists and musicians in far-flung corners of the world. In Nepal, a country with a rich tradition of folk music, the revival of traditional forms has taken on new significance in recent years.

Ethnomusicologist Kishore Gurung traces the evolution of Nepali music from its roots in rural folk traditions to the vibrant tapestry of sounds and styles that define the contemporary music scene. Despite the dominance of genres like Adhunik and Lok, Gurung emphasizes the enduring relevance of folk music as a repository of cultural heritage and collective memory.

In contrast to mainstream pop music, which often succumbs to commercial pressures and trends, folk music endures as a resilient and authentic expression of community identity and resilience. Bands like Kutumba, Night band, Cadenza Collective, Bipul Chettri, Gauley Bhai and many more indie artists exemplify this renaissance of Nepali music, blending traditional folk melodies with contemporary influences to create a sound that is both timeless and relevant.

Preserving cultural heritage: Challenges and opportunities

As Nepal and other countries grapple with the challenges of preserving their cultural heritage in the face of globalization and commercialization, the role of artists and cultural institutions becomes increasingly vital. Paul Greene, a social scientist, reflects on the importance of fostering a sense of pride and ownership in traditional musical forms, while also embracing innovation and experimentation.

Greene acknowledges the tensions inherent in this process, as artists navigate the delicate balance between preserving tradition and embracing change. Yet, he remains optimistic about the future of world music, citing the resilience of folk traditions and the passion of artists who continue to draw inspiration from the past while looking towards the future.

In conclusion, the story of world music and folk revival is one of resilience, creativity, and cultural exchange. From the bustling streets of New York City to the remote villages of Nepal, the echoes of folk melodies remind us of the enduring power of music to unite, inspire, and transform lives. As we navigate the complexities of a rapidly changing world, let us not forget the rich tapestry of traditions that have shaped our collective identity and continue to enrich our lives with their timeless beauty and wisdom.

The utilization of underground space has emerged as a crucial aspect of modern urban development, offering innovative solutions to address the challenges of population growth, urbanization, and infrastructure demands. This essay explores the global practices and prospects of underground space utilization, with a specific focus on Nepal's unique context and potential.

Underground space in construction

The utilization of underground space encompasses a wide range of construction methods and techniques, each tailored to specific project requirements and geological conditions. Open excavation, involving cutting the ground deeper than the existing ground level to create basements, trenches, or open pits, is a common method used for various infrastructure installations. Conversely, fully underground techniques entail excavating space within bedrock or soil cover to construct structures like caverns or tunnels. These methods have evolved, with advancements in technology and engineering enabling more efficient and cost-effective construction processes.

The utilization of underground space is multifaceted, encompassing various functions such as transportation, storage, shelter and utilities. Open-cut methods, including open-pit mining and trench systems, are often employed for infrastructure installations such as water and drainage pipes, cable ducts, and utility networks. These methods offer advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, ease of construction and minimal disruption to surface activities. Whereas tunneling involves creating underground passages through rock and soil formations, serving as vital transportation arteries and facilitating the movement of water, goods and people between different regions.

Pros and cons

Underground space utilization offers myriad benefits, including land conservation, enhanced environmental sustainability, and improved infrastructure resilience. By relocating infrastructure and utilities underground, cities can preserve valuable surface land for parks and green spaces, thereby enhancing the quality of urban life and promoting environmental sustainability. Moreover, underground facilities protect against natural disasters and extreme weather events, ensuring the safety of critical infrastructure and inhabitants. Additionally, underground transportation systems offer cleaner and more efficient alternatives to surface roads, reducing traffic congestion, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. These advantages contribute to a more sustainable and resilient built environment, supporting long-term urban development and growth.

However, despite its numerous benefits, underground space utilization also presents challenges and drawbacks that must be addressed. One significant challenge is the high initial cost associated with underground construction projects, including excavation, reinforcement and structural support systems. Geological uncertainties and risks, such as ground subsidence and water ingress, can lead to delays, cost overruns and safety hazards. Additionally, public opposition and regulatory hurdles may arise due to concerns about safety, environmental impact and community disruption. Robust maintenance and monitoring programs are required to ensure the long-term reliability and safety of underground facilities, posing logistical and financial challenges for project developers and operators. Despite these challenges, with proper planning and execution, underground space utilization can play a crucial role in shaping sustainable and resilient cities for the future.

Global case studies

Global case studies showcase the diverse applications and success stories of underground space utilization, offering valuable insights and lessons for urban planners and policymakers worldwide. One prominent example is the Gotthard Base Tunnel in Switzerland, the world’s longest railway and deepest traffic tunnel, spanning over 57 kilometers beneath the Swiss Alps. This groundbreaking project revolutionized transportation infrastructure, significantly reducing travel times and enhancing connectivity across Europe. The Laerdal Tunnel in Norway, with its impressive length of 24.5 kilometers, exemplifies the effective use of underground space to overcome geographical barriers and optimize transport routes.

In densely-populated Asian cities like Tokyo and Shanghai, underground space has become a vital component of urban development strategies. Japan’s extensive subway network, comprising approximately 1.6m kilometers of tunnels, underscores the importance of underground transportation in alleviating congestion and promoting sustainable mobility. China's rapid urbanization has spurred the construction of utility tunnels in major cities, providing essential services while minimizing surface disruption and environmental impact.

European cities like Paris and Stockholm have embraced underground space utilization to preserve historical heritage and address modern urban challenges. The Paris Underground Road, an innovative double-deck tunnel system, effectively manages traffic flow while preserving the city's architectural integrity. In Stockholm, the Swedish Royal Library and Le Grand Louvre Museum demonstrate how underground facilities can seamlessly integrate with surface structures, optimizing space utilization and enhancing cultural heritage preservation.

Tunneling situation in Nepal

Transitioning from global case studies to the local context, Nepal’s rich history of tunneling and underground construction highlights the country’s potential for leveraging underground space in various sectors. From ancient irrigation tunnels in Palpa to modern hydropower projects like the Khimti Hydroelectric Power Plant, Nepal has a legacy of harnessing its rugged terrain for infrastructure development. Recent initiatives such as the Nagdhunga-Naubise underground tunnel road and the Melamchi Diversion Scheme underscore Nepal’s commitment to modernizing its transportation and water management systems through underground infrastructure.

By studying these global and local case studies, urban planners and policymakers in Nepal can gain valuable insights into the diverse applications and benefits of underground space utilization. From enhancing transportation networks and preserving cultural heritage to mitigating environmental impact and promoting sustainable development, underground infrastructure offers a versatile and effective solution to the complex challenges facing modern cities.

Nepal is currently witnessing a surge in tunneling projects across various sectors, showcasing a strategic shift toward subterranean solutions to address pressing societal needs. These initiatives encompass a wide spectrum, from the Melamchi Diversion Scheme, designed to enhance water security by channeling 170m liters per day from the Melamchi River to the Kathmandu Valley through a 26-kilometer tunnel network, to the Tarai Madhes Fast Track project, aimed at improving connectivity with a 6.5-kilometer tunnel road section. Additionally, infrastructure initiatives like the Nagdhunga-Naubise underground tunnel road, spanning 2.68 kilometers, promise to alleviate traffic congestion and enhance road connectivity between Kathmandu and the western region of Nepal.

Furthermore, Nepal’s tunneling endeavors extend to the hydropower sector, with projects such as the Khimti-I Hydropower Plant featuring tunnels of significant lengths. Ongoing feasibility studies for road and railway tunnels underscore Nepal's commitment to exploring innovative solutions for connectivity and economic growth. As Nepal continues its infrastructural development journey, the strategic use of tunneling technology holds immense promise for overcoming key challenges and unlocking new avenues for progress, contributing to a more resilient and prosperous future.

Challenges for Nepal

In Nepal, harnessing underground space for infrastructure presents multifaceted challenges, stemming from the country’s diverse geological landscape. The Himalayan region is marked by complex geological conditions, including varied rock types, discontinuities and high groundwater levels, complicating tunneling and excavation efforts. These geological uncertainties lead to discrepancies between anticipated and actual instabilities during construction, highlighting the need for comprehensive geological surveys and risk assessments to inform project planning and mitigate unforeseen challenges. Moreover, Nepal’s susceptibility to tectonic activities and intense monsoon rains further exacerbate geological risks, emphasizing the importance of robust engineering practices and risk management strategies in underground infrastructure development.

Beyond geological complexities, Nepal faces significant non-geological challenges in its pursuit of underground space utilization. Limited technical expertise and specialized equipment hinder the effective execution of tunneling projects, contributing to delays, cost overruns and suboptimal outcomes. The scarcity of skilled professionals and inadequate investment in capacity-building initiatives underscore the urgency of bolstering the country’s engineering workforce and fostering knowledge transfer partnerships with international experts. Additionally, the absence of clear regulatory frameworks and guidelines for underground construction complicates project approval processes and regulatory compliance, creating uncertainty for investors and developers.

Addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach that integrates geological, technical, regulatory and institutional considerations to promote sustainable and resilient underground infrastructure development in Nepal. Strengthening technical capacity through targeted training programs and knowledge-sharing initiatives can enhance the country’s engineering capabilities and foster innovation in tunneling and excavation techniques. Furthermore, establishing clear regulatory frameworks and standards for underground space utilization can provide certainty and clarity for stakeholders while safeguarding environmental and safety concerns. Collaborative efforts between government agencies, private sector entities, academic institutions and international partners are essential for overcoming these challenges and unlocking the full potential of underground space in Nepal's infrastructure landscape.

Conclusion

In summary, Nepal is at a crucial juncture in its development trajectory, poised to leverage the untapped potential of underground space amid a myriad of challenges. Despite a historical focus on tunneling, particularly in hydropower projects, the nation faces complex geological dynamics and regulatory uncertainties that necessitate a strategic approach to subterranean development. By investing in geological surveys, adopting cutting-edge engineering practices and fostering regulatory clarity, Nepal can navigate the complexities of tunneling projects while harnessing the transformative benefits of underground infrastructure.

Moreover, by fostering collaboration, promoting public-private partnerships and prioritizing sustainability, Nepal can position itself as a leader in underground infrastructure development. From alleviating urban congestion and enhancing disaster resilience to preserving cultural heritage and mitigating environmental impact, the potential of subterranean space is vast. With concerted efforts to overcome challenges and capitalize on opportunities, Nepal can chart a path toward a more resilient, sustainable and prosperous future through the strategic utilization of underground infrastructure.

Hydropower, driven by the force of flowing water, stands as a renewable energy source critical for Nepal's energy security and global sustainability efforts. Nepal holds a ‘great’ potential for hydropower generation, but realizing this potential comes with its set of challenges, including infrastructural limitations, regional disparities, and the need for strategic planning and international collaboration.

Intertwined with its political history, Nepal's economic journey reflects periods of stagnation and resilience. Emerging from political transformations since the 1960s, Nepal has witnessed shifts in economic policies, trade relations, and investment climates. Despite facing challenges such as political instability and limited infrastructural development, recent years have seen a surge in foreign direct investment (FDI), signaling growing confidence in Nepal's economic prospects.

While sectors like tourism and remittance play crucial roles in Nepal's economy, the hydropower industry is emerging as a cornerstone for sustainable growth. With untapped rivers and a growing expertise in hydropower development, Nepal has the potential to reduce its reliance on imported fuels and bolster energy independence.

Progress and challenges

The landscape of Nepal's hydropower sector reflects both progress and challenges. With initiatives like the Arun-III project, the nation has made strides in expanding its energy infrastructure. However, disparities in project distribution across regions highlight the need for equitable development strategies. While the Eastern region boasts a higher concentration of operational projects, the Mid and Far-western regions lag behind, indicating the need for targeted investment and development efforts.

According to recent data from the Department of Electricity Development, Nepal currently has 142 hydropower projects integrated into the national grid, with a combined production capacity of 2603.46 MW. These projects are distributed across various districts, with Ilam standing out with 16 projects, while Dolakha leads in power generation capacity, followed by Lamjung. However, there is a notable concentration of operational projects in the Eastern region compared to the Western region. 

At present, as per information sourced from the Department of Energy Development (DOED), a total of 244 projects have obtained construction licenses, collectively possessing the potential to generate 8758.04 MW. This appears promising, aligning with market demand and the prospects for cross-border electricity trade. Notably, the Eastern and Western regions maintain prominence in the number of projects under construction. Myagdi leads with 24 projects holding a potential capacity of 797.43 MW, followed closely by Taplejung with 23 projects contributing to a cumulative capacity of 1189.9 MW. In terms of capacity, Sankhuwasaba emerges as the frontrunner, boasting a potential capacity of 1244.94 MW across 16 projects currently licensed for construction. On a positive note, Kalikot, a district in mid-western Nepal, secures the third position with a capacity of 888 MW derived from four projects.

Upon categorizing all the projects, it becomes evident that those with a capacity exceeding 100 MW are predominant, constituting a total of 3967 MW. Projects falling within the 50-100 MW range collectively contribute 1848.729 MW. Specifically, Taplejung and Myagdi each house five projects within the 50-100 MW range. Conversely, Rasuwa and Taplejung accommodate four and three projects, respectively, possessing installed capacities surpassing 100 MW. Overall, the outlook is comforting, characterized by a significant number of sizable projects in the developmental pipeline.

Total power generation capacity from existing projects of Independent Power Producers (IPPs) and Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) is a significant contributor to Nepal's energy landscape. As of recent data, IPPs significantly outpace NEA-led projects in meeting national demand. While IPP-led projects exhibit minimal import gaps, grid interruptions pose challenges, especially during high-demand periods. However, the combined efforts of IPPs and NEA contribute to the overall energy generation capacity of Nepal, laying the foundation for economic growth and development.

Addressing the energy gap

Operational projects in Nepal's energy sector are struggling to meet peak demand, necessitating imports from neighboring India. Analysis of the fiscal year 2079-80 data reveals a concerning decline in power generation during the driest period, from Mangsir/Poush to Baisakh/Jestha. To mitigate this shortfall, imports from India spike at approximately 680 MW during Chaitra and Baisakh. However, it's worth noting that exports are more prevalent during the wet season, highlighting seasonal fluctuations in energy demand and supply.

A closer examination of the energy table indicates a widening gap between energy requirement and availability in the wet season, offering an opportunity for revenue-generating exports. Conversely, in the dry season, import costs escalate as available power diminishes, posing economic challenges for Nepal's energy sector.

The predominant cause of this gap can be attributed to the reliance on run-of-river projects, where generation hinges on river water, making it susceptible to changes from global warming and unplanned development. Addressing this requires a firm power supply throughout the year to optimize cross-border energy export returns.

Independent Power Producers (IPPs) significantly outpace NEA-led projects in meeting national demand, yet grid interruptions remain a challenge, especially during high-demand periods like winter. Unplanned grid distribution, compounded by urbanization, exacerbates this issue. Transmission losses peak during the wet-min load season at 4.22 percent for 132KV and above, dropping to 3.57 percent during the dry-peak load season.

Addressing interruptions is paramount for ensuring reliable energy sources, particularly for the potential growth of the yet inactive industrial sector, crucial for leveraging national resources. However, without consistent supply security from NEA, the market may stagnate, impacting the economy and missing out on the benefits of increased power generation.

Solely focusing on exports is deemed economically shortsighted. Enhancing energy consumption capacity and replacing outdated fossil fuel dependencies from kitchens to industries are crucial steps. Future supply prospects appear promising, with potential three-fold increases from new mega projects being considered by stakeholders. This underscores the importance of strategic planning and collaborative efforts in ensuring Nepal's sustainable and resilient energy future.

Toward a sustainable future

Nepal's energy independence and sustainable development journey requires concerted efforts from government agencies, private sector stakeholders and international partners. While cross-border energy trade agreements signify progress, a broader strategy encompassing domestic consumption, alternative energy sources and infrastructure development is imperative for long-term sustainability.

As Nepal navigates its energy landscape, leveraging its hydropower potential while addressing challenges, the nation stands at a critical juncture in shaping its energy future. With strategic planning, innovative solutions and collaborative efforts, Nepal can realize its vision of a sustainable, resilient and prosperous energy sector.