“In a city with thousands of stone spouts, ancient canals, rivers, and ponds—we still want desperately for Melamchi. How foolish of us,” said Kathmandu Mayor Balendra Shah in a podcast with Sanjay Silwal Gupta. 

His words hit home—not just as a critique of our poor planning, but as a wake-up call. Kathmandu wasn’t always waiting on water tankers or chasing big-budget projects. Back in the 90s, the city breathed through the quiet flow of the Dhunge Dhara. These stone spouts, built with bare hands and brilliant minds, carried water from the hills into the hearts of communities. No motors, no fuel—just gravity, clay, and care. Today, most of them are bone-dry or buried under buildings. 

Long before cement mixers and big pipelines came to Kathmandu Valley, water used to quietly flow through old stone spouts, built by our ancestors with care and wisdom—locally known as Dhunge Dhara in Nepali and Hiti in Newa. These beautifully carved conduits weren’t just utilities; they were public spaces, engineering marvels, and sacred symbols of a civilization in tune with its natural environment. 

These spouts first emerged during the Kirat and Lichhavi eras and blossomed under the Malla kings of the 17th century, who commissioned vast canal systems (rajkulo) to feed these structures, for spiritual merit and practical need. King Pratap Malla of Kathmandu and King Jitamitra Malla of Bhaktapur were key figures who advanced this hydraulic vision. The genius of the system lay in its simplicity: gravity-fed water supply via canals and aquifers—zero motors, zero electricity. Even today, some still flow, quenching the thirst of low-income households who rely on them when piped water fails. 

At their peak, there were hundreds across the valley According to the 2019 Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB) survey, over 500 stone spouts were recorded across the Valley, with only a fraction still active today. In Kathmandu alone, just 40 were found to be flowing. Once dismissed as outdated, these spouts are now being reevaluated for their sustainability. 

Yet, time hasn’t been kind. Rapid urbanization, groundwater overuse, and pollution from septic tanks and factories have left many of these spouts dry or contaminated. Once central to life in the Valley, they now struggle to survive beneath roads, buildings, and shifting priorities. 

But their decline isn’t just about infrastructure—it’s about memory. Every Hiti tells a story of craftsmanship, community, and an era where civil engineering was inseparable from culture. 

The engineering behind Dhunge Dhara

Dhunge Dhara has played a great role in the preservation of the history of Nepal and its working mechanism is as amazing as its historical background. The dhara which was established 1000 years ago in the early 5th century is contained with ancient engineering, natural science, and community sustainability. It works on the mechanism of collecting and conveying the groundwater and rainfall water to the surface and providing reliable drinking and bathing water to the local communities through the pipe system. 

Dhunge Dhara functioned traditionally with the help of collection of water through different resources. Spouts are inserted in such a way that the underground water is fed on it. Kathmandu Valley’s thick black clay (kalomati) made it hard to reach deep water, so people used springs and built canals (rajkulo) to bring river water to city ponds. These ponds fed stone spouts. Rainwater ponds on hills helped refill shallow aquifers and controlled floods by passing extra water through connected ponds. 

At a dhunge dhara, water first collected in an underground chamber (navi mandal), then flowed through buried channels (hiti du) to the spout. Built below street level, the system used gravity to create enough pressure for water to rise and flow out naturally. Spouts were often set in sunken courtyards to tap into shallow aquifers. Water emerged into a basin for use, and any excess was directed to fields, ponds, or other spouts, creating a connected, sustainable water network. 

Dhunge dharas in Kathmandu were built using smart and lasting methods. The spout, often carved like a sacred animal (like a makara), was set in a brick wall above a sunken water basin. The basin was sealed with special black clay to keep it waterproof and clean. Steps led down to the water, and many spouts had shrines or statues nearby, showing their religious importance. 

Underground, water came from a spring or aquifer and was carried through terracotta pipes sealed with clay. These pipes were made from U-shaped pieces covered with stones or wood to form closed channels. Builders used bowl-like joints to turn corners or slow water down. Clay seals also helped prevent leaks and protected against earthquakes. 

Before water reached the spout, it passed through simple filters made of sand, gravel, charcoal, or plant materials. These cleaned the water and improved its taste. Some spouts had valves or junctions to control flow and allow cleaning. Wastewater flowed out through similar clay-sealed drains to fields or ponds. 

Extra features included nearby wells (tun) for backup water and storage tanks (tutedhara) that saved overflow for later use. All parts were made from strong, local materials like stone, brick, and clay, and they were easy to repair. Many still work today thanks to their smart and sustainable design. 

Sustainable design and long-term functionality

Several key factors made the dhunge dhara system sustainable and reliable over the long term, even with minimal technology: 

• Rainwater harvesting and aquifer recharge: The dhunge dhara system worked as an early water harvesting method. During the monsoon, ponds and canals collected rainwater, which soaked into the ground and recharged shallow aquifers. These aquifers fed the stone spouts, allowing them to flow even in the dry season. Ponds at higher elevations helped spread recharge and prevent floods. 
• Gravity-based system: The entire system ran on gravity. Water flowed from springs or ponds to spouts without pumps or fuel. Smart placement of sources above the spouts kept water flowing naturally and continuously. 
• Durable materials and easy maintenance: Builders used strong, local materials like stone, brick, and terracotta. Clay seals and flexible joints made the system earthquake-resistant and easy to fix. Regular maintenance, especially during the Sithi Nakha festival, kept it working. Community groups (guthis) took care of cleaning and repairs. 
• Clean water and health: Water passed through simple filters (sand, gravel, charcoal) before reaching the spout. Since the source was often groundwater and the pipes were covered, the water was cleaner than surface sources. The spiritual value of dharas also encouraged cleanliness. 
• Reuse and sustainability: Water from the spouts was reused for irrigation, ponds, or lower spouts in a chain. It met many needs: drinking, washing, and rituals. Because the system relied on natural cycles, simple design, and community care, it was sustainable and efficient for centuries.

Modern decline of the stone spout system

Despite their ingenious design, Nepal’s stone spouts have suffered a severe decline in the modern era. 

• Neglect after piped water: With the arrival of piped water in the late 1800s, traditional spouts lost importance. Maintenance stopped, and many were damaged or buried during urban development, especially after the 1934 earthquake. 
• Urban growth and recharge loss: Rapid construction replaced open land and ponds with concrete, stopping rain from soaking into the ground. This cut off groundwater supply to many spouts. 
• Groundwater overuse: As demand grew, people drilled thousands of wells. Over-pumping drained the shallow aquifers that fed the spouts. Today, most spouts are dry or seasonal.
• Pollution: Sewage leaks and garbage have polluted groundwater. Some spouts now deliver unsafe water or become trash dumps. 
• Encroachment and damage: Roads and buildings have blocked or destroyed the underground channels. Earthquakes and lack of repairs worsened the situation. 

According to the same KVWSMB 2019 survey, only 30-40 percent of the traditional stone spouts still flow, and even those primarily during the monsoon season. But in times of water shortage, some people return to the old spouts. Activists and engineers are now working to revive them by restoring ponds and recharge areas—showing that the ancient system can still work if water is supplied. 

 A call to action

The story of Dhunge Dharas isn’t just a chapter in a history book—it’s a living reminder of how engineering, community, and nature once worked in harmony. As Kathmandu faces deepening water scarcity, these ancient systems offer real, local solutions that are both sustainable and culturally rooted. With our municipalities finally showing interest in reviving these spouts, now is the time for all of us to act. Explore your own neighborhoods, talk to elders, map the forgotten dharas, and share their stories. Because only when we remember, can we revive—and only when we revive, can we truly sustain.

Ruju Shahukhal & Saksham Rupakheti

+2 Graduate

Kathmandu Model College (KMC), Bagbazar