Truth behind opium as a medicinal plant

Since becoming attuned to the art of writing through Amitav Ghosh, I have sought to immerse myself in the ideas presented in both his fiction and non-fiction works. His writing primarily focuses on the climate crisis and its deep connections to the colonial past. In Smoke and Ashes: A Writer’s Journey Through Opium’s Hidden Histories, Ghosh explores how the opium trade helped generate immense revenues for colonizers, while intertwining with the social and cultural fabric of societies over centuries. This intricate narrative sheds light on the profound impact of opium, not only as a trade commodity but also as a symbol of exploitation and resilience.

The medicinal use of opium is documented in classical literature, including works by Homer and Virgil, dating back to around 850 BC. During the reigns of the Greeks and Romans, it was widely used as a painkiller and, paradoxically, as a poison. Ancient texts reflect its dual nature as both a remedy and a danger. The journey of opium—from its origins in Europe, where references to it appear in the Bible as early as the 11th century, to its arrival in Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent—is a fascinating tale of cultural exchange, economic exploitation, and human suffering. In Europe, opium was commonly used to treat coughs, stomach disorders, and various other ailments, highlighting its role as a vital medicinal resource long before its notoriety as a tool of colonial profit.

Opium’s introduction to India and China coincided with the rising popularity of Chinese tea among European elites, particularly in Portugal. The importation of tea from China by European traders was paralleled by the exportation of opium to the Chinese market, despite its prohibition by the Ming dynasty. Notably, Chinese tea gained popularity in England thanks to Catherine of Braganza, the Portuguese wife of King Charles II. As part of her dowry, Catherine brought two historically significant items: a casket of tea and a set of six islands that would later become Mumbai. At the time, Portugal’s colonies included Macao, which was leased from the Ming dynasty. This transfer of goods and territories underscores the deep entanglement of trade, politics, and colonial ambitions that defined the era.

Recognizing tea’s economic value, the British East India Company worked to ensure a steady supply, not only to satisfy demand but also to sustain the revenues derived from the trade. Their ambitions extended beyond tea to include opium, which was traded with business lords in Canton. The nexus of tea and opium trade became a cornerstone of the British colonial economy. During the British Empire’s territorial expansions in North America and Europe, taxes on tea were significantly increased to offset military expenses. Simultaneously, the British forced Indian farmers and local rulers in colonized regions to intensify opium production. By 1770, the fertile paddy fields of Bengal had been converted into opium farms, plunging farmers into poverty. While the price of opium soared, the peasants who cultivated it were paid a pittance, perpetuating a cycle of exploitation and despair.

The transformation of Bengal’s agricultural landscape highlights the devastating consequences of colonial policies. The shift from subsistence farming to opium production left communities vulnerable to famine and economic instability. The human cost of this transition is a stark reminder of the sacrifices imposed on colonized populations for the sake of imperial profit. The opium trade also had far-reaching implications for global geopolitics. The British strategy of exporting opium to China in exchange for tea led to widespread addiction in China, exacerbating social and economic challenges. Despite frequent bans by the Qing dynasty in China, as well as efforts by the Siamese in Thailand and the Vietnamese emperor to curb its spread, the trade persisted. The Qing dynasty eventually signed the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, which opened Chinese ports to opium trade, marking a significant moment in the history of colonial domination and resistance.

The Dutch also played a key role in the opium trade, supplying the substance from central and eastern Europe to Indonesia and other parts of the East Indies. Their involvement underscores the multinational nature of the opium economy, with various colonial powers competing for control over its production and distribution. Despite the economic gains reaped by European powers, the opium trade left a legacy of addiction, social disruption, and economic dependency in the regions it touched. The Treaty of Nanjing not only facilitated the continuation of the opium trade but also symbolized the broader imbalance of power between imperial nations and their colonies.

I find myself wondering how Nepal managed to isolate itself from the global opium trade, which was so lucrative and pervasive among neighboring nations. The hippie culture that thrived in Nepal during the 1960s suggests that European travelers were drawn to the region for its marijuana and other substances. Yet, Nepal’s historical involvement in the opium trade remains unclear, raising questions about its role—or lack thereof—in this global narrative. Could it be that Nepal’s geographical and political isolation shielded it from the pressures of the opium economy? Or was there a deliberate effort by Nepalese rulers to distance the country from this exploitative trade?

Exploring Nepal’s position in the context of the opium trade reveals intriguing possibilities. While neighboring India and China were deeply entangled in the production and consumption of opium, Nepal’s mountainous terrain and relatively insular governance may have played a role in limiting its involvement. Additionally, Nepal’s historical focus on self-sufficiency and its unique socio-political structures could have contributed to its divergence from the dominant trade patterns of the time. The cultural and economic impacts of the hippie era in the 20th century suggest that Nepal has long been a site of cultural exchange, albeit on terms that differ significantly from those imposed during the colonial era.

The opium trade, as explored by Amitav Ghosh and other scholars, serves as a powerful lens through which to examine the intersections of history, economics, and human resilience. By unearthing the hidden histories of opium, we gain a deeper understanding of the forces that shaped the modern world. From the lush fields of Bengal to the bustling ports of Canton, the story of opium is one of ambition, exploitation, and resistance. Nepal’s relative absence from this narrative invites further exploration, offering a unique perspective on the ways in which nations navigate the pressures of global trade and colonial ambition.