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Humans used to be hunters and gatherers for 2.5m years, they plucked wild fruits and hunted wild animals as they traveled. It all changed about 10,000 years ago, when they started to influence the lives of selected wild plant and animal species for their benefit. The transition from nomadic to agriculture proceeded in a stage which involved just a small change in daily life over a generation.

What changes?

Presently, agriculture is one of the main occupations in the course of human civilization, which is the origin of the first crop to the society known today. In the long run, people started living together for agriculture practices. Availability of enough food and protection in a society helps in further population growth within the community. Use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers lead to maximum crop production, which helped in reducing hunger but this manipulation altered the whole ecosystems, resulting in habitat destruction, decline in biodiversity, soil fertility and nutrient depletion.

As the human population is increasing, demand for food is also increasing and intensive methods of farming eventually are escalating. This results in decrease of useful crop pest predators and thus rise in pest outbreaks. These intensive modern agriculture practices lead to deterioration of the natural habitat and biodiversity of numerous plants and animals. The use of pesticides kills the keystone species, which agitate the ecosystem and risk millions of important species up the food chain.

Chemical pesticides have been used as a traditional method for pest and disease control. However, it impacts negatively on biodiversity, crop quality and human health. Alternatively, use of biological pest regulation instead of pesticides is the best solution in recent scenarios.

Biological pest regulation maintains its population under the limit over time. Until now, biological pest regulation mainly focuses on manipulating the behavior of pests and arthropods (natural predator). Approaches like using pheromones (chemical signals that insects release to communicate), disrupt their mating and changing foraging sites have shown success. However, arthropods as a predator, mobility is not so much, indicating this method is effective in specific areas only where these predators are present. While arthropods as predators are effective bioregulators, including specific species of reptiles and amphibians into this approach can improve the regulation of pest populations. Utilizing arthropods, along with reptiles and amphibians significantly helps in bioregulation of pests.

Amphibians and reptiles can survive in a disturbed habitat and use different resources. While hunting, predators consider the characteristics of the prey, such as what they eat, how they move and how they behave in their environment. These characteristics reflect how predators prefer to hunt. For example: some actively search while others wait and ambush their prey.

Reptiles and amphibians use their visual and olfaction (sense of smell) to track and identify prey. The characteristic hunting process directs the sensory faculty either visual or olfactory. For example, lizards and some of the amphibians that are active foragers use their smell sensory while ambush foragers like some species of iguanas depend on their visual. In specific cases like oriental garden lizards, they wait for prey to come close, wait for the movement of the prey to capture. They don’t react if the prey doesn’t show any movement or release any chemicals by the prey.

According to foraging theory, active foragers prefer stationary prey having relatively large size and are widely distributed over area whereas ambush foragers catch mobile prey and prefer small size prey found in grouped distribution. Ambush foragers have broader prey as a diet than active foragers because the chance of capturing prey is less and they cannot be selective as active foragers.

Another interesting behavior of reptiles and amphibians is that they use the surrounding environment as information about the prey and protection from their predators. They can create a cognitive map (mental representation of the environmental reminder), which helps to guide in their home range, locating their spread-out prey without searching randomly every time.       

Active foragers are good at spatial learning since they have larger home ranges and are always in mobility, which require these skills more than ambush predators. While ambush predators spend less energy in searching for prey, they eventually change spots with abundances of food.

This information can help in the agricultural field, to mobilize active or ambush predators according to the nature of the pest, and the size of the agriculture farm.

Conclusion

Agriculture fields with active foragers are beneficial as they are good at scanning their environment and forming memories about pest-infested crops/areas. For them, spatial clues like natural habitats, trees help in locating prey more successfully. Meanwhile, ambush foragers use local cues like distinct shapes or natural rocks to find and remember hunting spots. Keeping crop patches in the same locations helps both active and ambush foragers to create authentic memories of their surroundings, making them easier to hunt.

Protecting and maintaining their habitats for breeding and hibernation is also important. Amphibians prefer small water bodies with warm and sunny aspects while reptiles favor open areas for warmth and vegetated areas for dwelling. Their habitats should connect so that the population gets easy access to each other for biological activities.  Maintaining habitat with dense vegetation for shelter, creating edges with different vegetations to add up habitat diversity, and maintaining different height shrubs will provide camouflage during different activities.

Yellow-breasted bunting (Emberiza aureola), locally known as “Bagale bagedi” belongs to the family “Emberizidae”. It is one of the winter visitors which arrives in Nepal or stopover here and fly to more south in flocks during end of November to early April. This species is a native to the northern hemisphere, traveling from Russia, Mongolia, China and Siberia to avoid harsh cold. Normally, they reside in the southern part of the northern hemisphere for six months.

This species breeds in the forests of Siberia and northeast Asia during the months of summer, then migrate to south Asia during winter seasons where they can forage and roost. Additionally, return to the northern part to breed again and continue this cycle. This bird species inhabits bogs, meadows, mountain tundra, forest steppe, broadleaf forests, open conifer forests, and abandoned fields close to villages during the breeding seasons. They inhabit lowlands to an altitude of 2,000 meters. This species is classified as critically endangered on both global and national levels.  

This bird species forage insects and feed to their chicks during breeding season and in the non-breeding season they feed on seeds and grains. This insectivore and granivore diet are crucial for egg production, healthy development of their chicks while maintaining necessary nutrients to sustain their energy during the migration period. Hence, the YBB population depends on the accessibility of the grains and insects. 

According to BirdLife International, the species’ population is estimated to have declined by 84.3-94.7 percent between 1980 and 2013. Change in agricultural practices and degradation of natural habitats significantly impacts their survival during breeding and migrating seasons. The use of pesticides and insecticides considerably reduces the number of insects which is an important factor of nutrients during breeding season. Scarcity in the number of insects reduces the production of eggs and the health of chicks. Transformation of wetlands, grassland and agricultural lands to other forms, reduces the seed-bearing plant species. Lack of proper nutritious seeds while migrating decreases the chance of survival in harsh cold. Unfortunately, these are not the only factors for the YBB population to decrease. For decades YBB are hunted mostly during migration for foodstuff. Beside this species, 25 other bird species are trapped and sold as bagedi meat which is a matter of concern. It is consumed as gourmet food in China and some parts of southeast Asia, low land of Nepal and also found in local hotels of Kathmandu. There is a belief that they have medicinal properties, warm up bodies in winter and have aphrodisiac properties. It is assumed that a professional trapper can trap 100 to 130 birds in a day and has a transaction of Rs 7,488,000-8,424,000.

Organizing awareness campaigns, and community participation in bird monitoring, and conservation activities should be called on a regular basis. Promoting perma-agriculture, urban forestry, and other activities that benefit the bird should be promoted. This helps in maintaining its population. Implementing strong regulations to protect from hunting for consumption, restrictions on the sale of its meat and imposing penalty for poaching helps in its conservation. As this is a migratory bird, mapping the migratory routes’ wintering and stopover locations might be the major points in conservation by making a clear and sound environment in its migrating route, locally and internationally. 

Conclusion

The YBB helps in controlling the population of insects and scattering of seeds. Not only that, it also serves the purpose of food for the predator in the wide range of land in the migration route. As a migratory bird it transfers nutrients and energy between different ecosystems. Its conservation promotes ecotourism by attracting bird watchers and helps local communities by economic empowerment. In contrast, if this species is conserved and can increase the population, it can somewhat increase the economic status of trap hunters in livelihood. YBB is one of the good indicator species of the grassland, wetland and agriculture ecosystem. Its decline in populations in past decades indicates something negative has changed in this natural environment.

Barn owl (Tyto alba), also locally known as Gothe Latokosero of the family Tyonidae, is a nocturnal and mystical bird. It can be identified by its heart-shaped facial characteristics and a distinct screeching call.

Barn owls can be found on almost every continent except Antarctica. Globally it is concerned but categorized as vulnerable under the National Red List of Nepal Birds. It is one of the commonly known bird species and found in folklore and myths of almost every culture. They are associated with wealth, prosperity, patience, intelligence, and spiritual purity. Culturally it is believed that barn owls possesse the mystical power of fortune telling. 

Since barn owls are  nocturnal birds of prey, most people do not know about their habits and habitat. A barn owl can be found in elevations between 75 meters to 1,320 meters in Nepal. 

We do not have the scientific study that relates to the population of the barn owl; however, there is an expert guess which suggests that the population of the species is below one thousand in Nepal.

Ecological and economic significance

Barn owls and humans coexist with each other in a human-made environment. They can be found roosting and nesting in old buildings, especially inner areas of the roofs under the houses. It hunts rats, mice, and also small birds and bats. They play an important role as nocturnal predators by controlling the population of rodents and maintaining balance in the ecosystem.They safeguard the stored grains and agricultural products from pests like rodents. 

Threats

Globally the population of barn owls is stable but in the context of Nepal, their number is decreasing. Barn owls readily utilize human-made structures and live near human settlements.

The threats for this species range from habitat loss and degradation, illegal hunting and trade, use of pesticides, and lack of public awareness. Due to the extent of urbanization and the decrease in agricultural land, the barn owl lost its nesting and roosting site, and hunting area. Modernization of houses and lack of open lands negatively impact on barn owl population and its existence. An increase in the number of vehicles may raise the number of collisions as barn owls have low-flying flight patterns to catch their prey.

As this species merges and utilizes the human environment, change in that area directly impacts on existence. Lack of nesting and roosting places in modern houses, lack of hunting grounds is severely affecting the species. 

Furthermore, a study done in 2015 revealed that the earthquake caused an adverse effect on potential sites for barn owls in the Kathmandu Valley, as many old houses which have structures that support the nesting of the bird were damaged.

The use of pesticides to control the rodent population to increase agricultural products have also affected barn owls. Rodents after consuming rodenticides show reduced mobility, which makes them vulnerable to predation by barn owls. Consuming such rodents in turn may be causing the death of barn owls. 

What can be done?

While the barn owl is considered a resident bird species, it is essential to study its ecology, hunting behavior, habitat preferences, and zoonotic diseases. Public awareness about the benefit of barn owls can also help. One of the ongoing practices is the Nepal Owl Festival which is celebrated every year. These types of collective efforts promote owl conservation through the involvement of the community. As the effort is made on the localized scale, the government should support the concerned organizations to amplify the scale of coverage of the initiatives.  

Nepal has prepared a conservation action plan for barn owls. The action plan stipulates that the existence of the species depends on the safety of its habitat and availability of prey to hunt. Restoring its old habitats, encouraging the building of artificial nests in semi urban cities like Lumbini, Pokhara, Koshi and Bhaktapur helps in improving their habitat qualities. In the finer scale, practicing agroforestry with layers of trees, bushes and vegetation of native plants, helps maintain local biodiversity and also provides a safe habitat and hunting ground for barn owls. The approach will serve the dual purpose of providing important fodder and fuelwood for the household, as well as providing the protective layer for the crops.

To reduce illegal hunting, trade and harm to this bird, a penalty of Rs 20,000 to Rs 50,000 or an imprisonment of six months to one year or both, is in place. But most people are unaware about this law, so it would be good if we invest in awareness drives. 

Despite being the least concerned species in other parts of the range, the situation of barn owls in Nepal is terrifying. And most of the threats to the species finds their root in anthropogenic interferences. However, the species are yet to receive the conservation attention they deserve. We need to shift our focus to preserve the nesting, roosting and hunting sites of the barn owl and alleviate other threats to prevent the local extirpation of the species. 

Nepal with its diverse geographical and climatic variation can offer habitat for a wide range of migratory birds. Around 212 species of migratory birds visit and spend nearly six months in the different parts of Nepal. Birds like waterfowl, eagles, storks, cranes and other species make this land a temporary habitat during different weather conditions.

Around 150 birds from Russia, Europe, Mongolia and other northern countries migrate to Nepal during winter seasons to avoid the harshest cold. They arrive in Nepal flying thousands of kilometers over the mountains and seas and return following the same route in summer. During this journey, they have to go through difficult conditions like cold weather, harsh wind, predators and also humans, our polluting activities and environmental degradation. Similarly, in search of more pleasant temperatures and breeding sites, around 62 species of summer migratory birds arrive in Nepal from Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and South India.

Migratory birds use different habitats like wetlands around ponds, lakes and rivers, farmlands, grasslands and forests. These habitats are mostly used by the winter visitors and being the destination for winter birds, not only do they provide warmer temperatures but also a habitat with an abundance of food sources. They prefer mostly insects, small fishes, plants, seeds and other organisms.

Insects are abundant in green areas with higher forest biomass and are a good source of protein for migratory birds as well as others for survival and continuation of lineage. Understanding the type of insects they prefer helps in conserving the birds, insects and their habitat. 

Human activities like habitat fragmentation, encroachment, dumping of sewage, using chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides for better crop production decrease the insect population. Birds store fat in their body while starting their journey and ample availability of the food species, such as insects, are vital for this accumulation process. This accumulated fat provides energy while flying for long hours. On the contrary, in the present scenario of decreasing habitat and foraging areas, due to human encroachment and pollution there are threats to declination in the population of insects and birds. Anthropogenic activity in light pollution in urban areas also is a major reason for the decline of insects as they are nocturnal and are easy to trace by predators.

Relationship between birds and insects

Bird migration is one of the crucial components of bird biology. Migration to distant land is in search of suitable temperature, breeding and foraging habitat. In the course of migration and breeding for birds, insects are the main source of diet providing necessary nutrients in non-stop flight as well as safety from predators. There is a complex relationship between birds and insects. It is important that the timing of bird migration and abundance availability of preferred insects coincide. If the birds arrive early or late or when insects are less in number, birds may starve but if birds arrive when the insect numbers are high then the birds can get plenty of nutrients. There is an evolutionary relationship between birds and insects. Birds and insects evolve in response to each other. Birds have specialized beaks in course feeding behavior with time. This evolved specialized beak allows them to catch insects. On the other hand, insects themselves have defensive abilities like camouflage and toxin-producing capacity to protect from predatory birds. Birds are effective pest control as they consume most of the insects preventing the overpopulation of insects. Numbers of certain insect species damage agriculture crops and other plants mis balancing the ecosystem. Sometimes birds act as a vector in transferring certain infectious diseases. Hence it is better to understand the food behavior of those migratory birds.

What can we do?

Being the migratory birds, coordination between countries should be encouraged, protecting the habitats underneath the path of the migration route, controlling illegal hunting, using alternatives of pesticides to minimize its effects on the environment, educating people about the significance of birds and insects, and cleaning up urban gardens. Moreover, restoring the habitats by creating insect’s insect-friendly gardens or urban forests, restoration of grasslands, and wetlands, and planting insect-friendly vegetation can increase insect diversity and population. Not only insects are a good source of nutrients for birds but also help in pollinating crops.

In addition, supporting organic farming and agroforestry, prioritizing diverse crops or plants over monoculture, and using fewer toxic pesticides and insecticides also help in increasing insect numbers. Likewise, maintaining dead leaves on the ground which is used as a habitat, breeding and feeding ground by insects is also a positive marker. Doing so helps in the nutrient cycle. Removing invasive plants and planting native plants is good for the local ecosystem and can be consumed by local insects thus increasing the number. Insect-favoring landscaping gardens and bird-friendly designs are the next better steps where they can find a healthy environment to survive and breed for healthy generations.

For the conservation of migratory species, it is essential to ensure that they are protected in both the habitat and multilateral environmental agreements are vital in that regard. Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), is an important multilateral agreement to protect the migratory species. However, Nepal has only signed the CMS for the birds of prey. Nepal needs to sign and rectify the convention and join the global movement to protect additional migratory species. 

Likewise, public awareness is key for educating bird-insect relationships. World Migratory Bird Day is celebrated twice every year in May and October. This year, World Migratory Bird Day will be celebrated on May 11 and Oct 12, aligning with the cyclical nature of bird migration in different hemispheres. With the slogan of Protect insects, protect birds. Some Insects can be petrifying to look at but it is the source of food for 55 percent of world birds. So, we need to save insects and appreciate them for their helpful qualities to protect many bird species, including migratory birds.