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Turtles are among the oldest reptilian species on Earth, playing a vital role in maintaining the health of ecosystems. Acting as scavengers in aquatic environments, they contribute significantly to the balance of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Despite their ecological importance, turtle conservation in Nepal has received minimal attention. Nepal's lowland Tarai region, particularly the buffer zones surrounding Chitwan National Park (CNP), is a crucial habitat for turtles. However, even in these protected areas, turtles face significant exploitation pressures, highlighting the urgent need for conservation efforts.

In Nepal, turtles remain one of the least studied species. A recent study, published in the Journal for Nature Conservation, sought to understand the dynamics of turtle exploitation in CNP’s buffer zone. This research focused on four key turtle species: the Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata), Tricarinate Hill Turtle (Melanochelys tricarinata), Indian Flapshell Turtle (Lissemys punctata), and Black Pond Turtle (Melanochelys trijuga). These species represent a range of conservation statuses under the IUCN Red List, from "Critically Endangered" to "Least Concern." The survey revealed that turtles are commonly observed in the region, with the Elongated Tortoise being the most frequently identified species. Conversely, the Black Pond Turtle, categorized as "Least Concern," was the least reported species. Interestingly, the higher observation rates for globally threatened species could indicate local abundance, though further evidence is needed to validate this hypothesis.

Respondents reported seeing turtles mainly during the monsoon and summer seasons, which aligns with the biological behavior of turtles, as they tend to hibernate during winter. While many respondents expressed a willingness to leave turtles undisturbed in their natural habitats, about one-third admitted they would consume turtles or keep them as pets if the opportunity arose. Alarmingly, over three-quarters of respondents acknowledged having collected turtles at least once in their lifetime. This collection was primarily motivated by a desire for consumption and the belief in the medicinal value of turtle parts. Various turtle body parts are traditionally thought to cure ailments such as asthma, cough, fever, and piles, although these claims lack scientific evidence.

The study found that turtle collection was significantly influenced by age, with older children more likely to participate. This generational pattern is concerning, as it suggests that cultural practices and traditional beliefs surrounding turtles continue to be passed down. However, there are signs of change; younger generations appear less inclined to engage in turtle exploitation, offering hope for the future.

Respondents held mixed perceptions about turtle population trends. Some believed that strict enforcement of laws in protected areas has led to population recovery. Others, however, pointed to habitat degradation, illegal trade, and human-induced pressures as factors driving turtle population declines. The encroachment of forests and wetlands further exacerbates these challenges, reducing suitable habitats for turtles and increasing their vulnerability to exploitation.

Chitwan National Park, established in 1973 as Nepal’s first protected area, introduced a buffer zone system in 1996 to promote community-based conservation efforts. Under this system, local communities receive a share of the park's revenue to support conservation initiatives. However, these funds are often directed towards the protection of larger, charismatic mammals such as tigers and rhinos, with turtles receiving little attention. This disparity highlights a need for more equitable resource allocation to ensure that lesser-known but ecologically important species like turtles are not overlooked.

Of the 17 turtle species found in Nepal, 13 are listed as threatened under the IUCN Red List. Despite this alarming statistic, public awareness of turtle conservation remains minimal. Most respondents in the study were unaware of the conservation status of local turtle species or their ecological significance. Turtles play a crucial role in maintaining aquatic ecosystems by regulating food chains, controlling pest populations, and cleaning up dead organic matter. However, only a few individuals recognized these contributions, underscoring the need for widespread awareness campaigns.

Encouragingly, over three-quarters of respondents expressed a willingness to participate in conservation efforts for turtles. This positive attitude suggests that with proper guidance and resources, communities could play a pivotal role in turtle conservation. The study also revealed that community attitudes significantly influence individual behaviors toward turtles. In communities where turtles are valued and protected, individuals are less likely to exploit them. Conversely, in areas where turtles are viewed primarily as a resource, exploitation rates are higher.

Indigenous communities in Nepal’s lowlands, who rely heavily on wetland resources for their livelihoods, are among the primary contributors to turtle exploitation. Traditional beliefs about the medicinal properties of turtles drive their collection and consumption. However, cultural and religious values could serve as a counterbalance to these practices. Turtles are revered in Hindu mythology, symbolizing the goddess Laxmi and Lord Vishnu’s ‘Kurma’ incarnation. Leveraging these cultural associations could help discourage turtle exploitation and foster a sense of responsibility toward their conservation.

Community involvement is critical for the sustainable conservation of any species. For turtles, this means creating opportunities for local populations to engage in conservation activities while addressing their livelihood needs. Stakeholders must explore innovative approaches to integrate turtle conservation into community development programs. For instance, ecotourism initiatives could be developed around turtle habitats, providing economic benefits to local communities while promoting conservation. Additionally, education campaigns tailored to specific cultural and social contexts could help shift behaviors and attitudes over time.

The path to changing deeply rooted practices is fraught with challenges, but the growing awareness among younger generations offers a glimmer of hope. Educating and empowering young people to become conservation stewards could be a game-changer in reversing the trend of turtle exploitation. By fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility among youth, Nepal can build a foundation for long-term conservation success.

Ultimately, the conservation of turtles in Nepal requires a multifaceted approach that combines scientific research, community engagement, cultural values, and policy advocacy. By prioritizing these efforts and ensuring equitable resource allocation, Nepal can safeguard its turtle populations and preserve their ecological and cultural significance for future generations.

Herpetofaunal species including turtles are yet to receive the conservation attention they deserve, with the only exception being the Gharial considered the tiger of the herpetofauna group. The condition of turtles is pitiful in Nepal. Many of the threats they face originate from anthropogenic sources that include shrinkage of habitat and pollution. Majority of the turtles in Nepal are listed as threatened species in IUCN Red List of Threatened Species including the softshell turtle (Nilssonia gangetica). This is a cause for concern and demands immediate intervention.  

Among the class of reptiles, turtles are the oldest, with 356 species documented globally. Nepal is home to 17 species and 19 sub-species of turtles. Turtles in natural habitat are reported from the forest and wetland of Nepal’s lowland regions. All other species of turtles, with the exception of the elongated tortoise, rely on wetlands and water resources in some way. Softshell turtles inhabit water resources like rivers, lakes, oxbows and ponds. This is one of the largest turtle species found in the Indian subcontinent distributed across Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi and Koshi rivers. The species deposits their eggs on sandbanks and makes use of riverbanks for basking during the summer. Usually they are observed near the Muggers or Gharials on the riverbank of the Tarai region. 

Softshell turtles possess the ability to maintain the water quality of aquatic systems also known as scavengers of aquatic ecosystems by consuming insects /phytoplankton.

Human population density is high in the Tarai region and the cascading impacts are seen on the ecosystem nearby. In recent years, dumping of solid waste in the riverbank is increasing which pollutes the aquatic bodies, thereby decreasing the availability of food for turtles. 

Furthermore, similar to the other turtle species, softshell turtles are experiencing mounting exploitation pressure. The potential of the individuals being captured and consumed before reaching sexual maturity is high in case of turtles, meaning all the turtles including the softshell turtles are more sensitive to exploitation pressure. Myths about medicinal values in turtle shells and consumption of turtle meat by some indigenous groups have also driven the turtle population into extinction. The Hindus, meanwhile, revere turtles as one of the avatars of god Vishnu and believe that keeping the species at home brings good luck and prosperity. This practice has encouraged the practice of snatching turtles from their natural habitat and keeping them as pets. 

In addition, natural predators like dogs, monitor lizards and jackals consume their eggs during nesting period and are responsible for population declination. In most of the cases those species are entangled either in plastic materials or gillnet during fishing. 

Threats like canalization of rivers have also caused problems like habitat fragmentation and shrinkage, disrupting the connection between the river ecosystem and wetlands. This directly disturbs the movement of the species in its habitat, resulting in the loss in genetic variation in species. 

Several anthropogenic pressures are creating stress on softshell turtles and their habitats, pushing them toward extinction. 

However, some initiatives have been working in terms of turtle conservation. TRCC (Turtle Rescue and Conservation Centre) Jhapa and a turtle breeding center in Chitwan have been working to conserve turtle species. However, their efforts are still insufficient to conserve the overall turtle species. Environment Protection and Study Centre (ENPROSC) has initiated Turtle talk Nepal with the aim of promoting the research and conservation of the turtle fauna in Nepal. Every year on May 23 they organize an event where conservationists discuss the wider issue of turtle research and conservation. However, the government’s involvement in turtle conservation activities are almost non-existent. 

Turtles are vital for the balance of the environment and they are facing threats from natural and anthropogenic factors. Thus, it is high time to care about the species and initiate a conservation program.  

Nepal is rich in biodiversity represented by 118 ecosystem types. In a span of 800 km by 200 km, diverse arrays of wildlife species have been recorded. However, many of these components of biodiversity are facing existential crises, most of them due to anthropogenic influences. Amphibians are one such group of species, which are experiencing such threats. Some charismatic species such as tiger, rhino and snow leopard have received privileged treatment while the ‘non-charismatic’ species such as amphibians are shrouded in shadow.

All three types of amphibians are found in Nepal, namely frogs, salamanders and caecilians. There are six families of frogs in Nepal that includes 57 species. However, lack of studies about amphibians means scant information is available about their distribution. 

Environmental conditions like temperature, soil moisture and rainfall determine the occurrence of amphibians and the richness of their habitats. Amphibians prefer agricultural land, grassland, forestland and wetlands. 

Besides, amphibians play significant roles in the ecosystem by acting as both prey and predator. They keep pests like mosquitoes under control, help maintain the quality of water, contribute to crop yields and public health. 

Despite such an important role, these ‘non-charismatic’ species are not the focus of our conservation efforts.

Frogs are on the decline, due mainly to habitat degradation, conversion of wetlands to wasteland and a belief that they have certain medical values, a reason behind their consumption. Unplanned urbanization has become a major cause in developing countries like Nepal behind a shrinking habitat. 

A study has shown a significant relation between the roads and the occurrence of frog species in the Kathmandu Valley. Enhancing developmental activities like construction of road and other infrastructure could result in biodiversity loss, pushing the amphibian species on the verge of extinction. Furthermore, it is not a good practice to encourage students to use thousands of species killed annually for the purpose of dissecting frogs as a sample in practical courses.

To draw attention toward the poor status of frogs, Environment Protection and Study Center (ENPROSC) and Companions for Amphibians and Reptile for Nepal (CARON) initiated a program titled crocking monsoon in 2013, followed in 2019 by a citizen science-based approach with Wildlife Conservation Nepal (WCN), which has again highlighted a poor status of these creatures. 

Notably, this program started frog surveys across the country during the Covid pandemic with the aim of raising public awareness on the species, conducting research and identifying the species. 

This program mobilized volunteers across all seven provinces and 51 districts as citizen scientists, who, as district representatives, collected information (photos, videos) about frogs that used to be found in their respective localities. 

The year 2020 saw the submission of 1300 individual submissions of frog species using kobo collect application, followed by 1000 submissions in 2021. 

There’s a dominant mindset that only larger species deserve conservation, meaning that even governments across the world, including in Nepal, think that ‘non-charismatic’ species are not worthy of conservation. 

This program dedicated to ‘non-charismatic’ species, like several such conservation programs around the world, is in crisis for want of economic support. 

In this context, March 20 is an important date to remind the whole world of the need to conserve ‘non-charismatic’ species like frogs. Different stakeholders, including NGOs, organize awareness programs at different schools on the World Frog Day to raise awareness on the importance of frogs with a hope that those behind the decimation of the species will transform themselves into conservationists one day.

Summing up, tailored conservation approaches are necessary for sustainable conservation of amphibians. In our context, how about changing the syllabi suggesting amphibian species for dissection and exploring other alternatives?

Nepal is home to three species of bears, namely the Black bear, Brown bear and the Sloth bear distributed across Himalayan, mountain and Tarai regions, respectively. Among these three members of the Ursidae family, Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), commonly called ‘Kathe Bhal’ in Nepal, is facing existential crisis highlighting the need for more tailored conservation actions.

Distribution and biology

Sloth bears are found primarily in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal. In Nepal, Sloth bears are distributed along the Tarai and Chure regions of Nepal mostly below the 1,500 meter elevation range. Sloth bears inhabit different habitat ranges, including grassland, moist evergreen forest, riverine forest and Sal forest.

Sloth bears are omnivorous, primarily feeding on termites, ants and insects. They use their front teeth to dig for catching their food, which makes them myrmecophagy mammals. Sloth bears also feed on fruits, flowers and climb trees to hunt for honeycombs. By consuming the termites and ants, this species helps balance the ecosystem apart from helping with seed dispersal, regeneration of plants and creating suitable conditions for seed germination. Furthermore, it also supports the structure and composition of forests.  

Conservation

Though nationally-endangered, sloth bears have yet to get conservation attention in Nepal. Most of Nepal’s sloth bears inhabit Chitwan National Park enjoying a protected habitat, apart from Parsa National Park, Bardiya National Park, Banke National Park and Suklaphanta National Park, forests in Dhanusha and Deukhuri valley in Dang and Triyuga forest in eastern Nepal, which is the second largest habitat of the species in the country. 

As many of these habitats are near the sites with high human population density, the frequency of encounters between the species and the humans is high. Such encounters are largely undocumented. Increasing dependency of communities on natural resources, especially on forests in the Tarai region, has caused a decline in the population of this mammal. 

Anthropogenic threats including habitat loss—due to fragmentation and deforestation—overharvesting and use as dancing bears are leading causes of this decline. 

Furthermore, body parts of this species are in demand internationally for ‘medicinal purposes’ and this factor is triggering the trapping, hunting and trafficking of the species’ body parts. 

The species seems to be moving toward the core area of the jungle due to an increasing exploitation of resources in its habitat. 

Recent instances of the species’ extirpation in Bangladesh, Bhutan and Suklaphanta National Park of Nepal suggest the need for an appropriate conservation action plan.

Normally in our country, charismatic species like the Tiger, Rhino and the Elephant have been prioritized for conservation, while the rest live in the shadows. Nevertheless, conservation is the process that must emphasize conserving biodiversity and embracing the ecosystem as an entire system, demonstrating that it is not selective toward any particular species. 

But our conservation rules and regulations seem to be species-oriented, despite the fact that every species has a role to maintain the ecosystem and that declination and increasing extirpation of the species are signs of an unfavorable ecosystem. Many of the records of Sloth bears in Nepal are from the studies targeted at other species, where records of Sloth bears are captured as a by-catch. Besides, the CNP species study hardly covers unprotected areas. Despite being in the threatened category, Sloth bear has not been prioritized for its study and conservation.

Generally, Sloths bear a sense of insecurity during accidental appearances/encounters with humans, so they try to defend themselves. Because of this behavior, local communities feel that these bears are harmful, so they even seek to kill the mammals by trapping them. 

Sloth bears enjoy some protection at both international and national levels as they fall under appendix I of CITES that seeks to protect the species from threats related to trafficking. Furthermore, Oct 12 is celebrated as the Sloth Bear Day with the aim to promote its remarkable ecological role. Defeating the negative perception and spreading awareness on the importance of this species in maintaining the ecological balance should be our main focus. 

Understanding the prey-predator relationship, trophic cascade should be prioritized to create suitable habitat for particular species. 

Developing a corridor between its habitat and enhancing coexistence should be a top priority at the community level, which has direct connection with the species. This can be done by involving communities for conservation on the basis of their indigenous knowledge.

Ganges River Dolphin (GRD) is the indicator species of the freshwater ecosystem also recognized as flagship species. GRDs have been distributed across the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sanghu Rivers in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. GRDs are found on Floodplain Rivers of lowland Tarai region. In Nepal GRDs are supremely residents on Karnali, Gandaki and Koshi rivers. In the recent years, there have been some signs recorded as videos which indicate the occasional utilization of Bagmati River in Rautahat district by GRD which needs additional verification.

Ganges River Dolphin (GRD), a mammal of the freshwater ecosystem, is threatened both at national and international levels.  They are listed in endangered category of IUCN Red list and in Nepal they are listed as critically endangered species in latest assessment conducted in 2011. The species experiencing multitude of threats is waiting for proper conservation interventions, otherwise they would be limited to the folklore.

According to best estimates, the population of GRD is 52 individuals across the country. In the past, the species was reported from the Mahakali river, while the recent report suggest their extirpation from there and the cause of local extinction have been attributed to the construction of barrage on the migratory route of the species. In Koshi, considered the second most populated river, GRDs are found only on lowland regions below dams. In the past, Narayani used to be one of the prime habitats of Dolphin, however, after the Gandak dam was built, only one to two individuals have been sighted and in the recent year, only one individual has been sighted so far in the river. Furthermore, the species is facing tremendous pressure majorly due to anthropogenic activities like overfishing, electrofishing, poisoning across its distribution range, among others. This implies that the population of GRDs hs declined  across its range. In addition, the species is also facing challenges due to habitat fragmentation and loss mainly resulting from dam construction for hydropower and barrages for flood reduction.

The flow regulation of rivers can directly impact GRDs' habitat as they maintain their regular activities as per river's flow. The fluctuation in the river flow and the changing flow direction can adversely affect its life cycle. The construction of the dams without doing proper scientific study can destroy the aquatic habitat. This can cause river fragmentation in their habitat, distracting the movement of GRDs, which results in shrinkage in habitat of aquatic species. Those threats are also responsible for the decline of genetic variations in the aquatic species, which directly reduce the adaptive capacity of these species to a changing environment.

Water quality in the rivers is vital for the freshwater species. This is more significant to the species like GRDs, which require pure free flowing rivers. Both the decrease in quantity and quality of water in the river are detrimental to freshwater species. Agricultural and industrial runoff, including dumping pesticides, enhances the toxicity on water, thereby decreasing suitability of the river for the species. Similar pattern can be seen for the deviation in water quantity, particularly in dry season, when the waters are diverted for other purposes. The species like GRDs, which prefer deep water pools, cannot exist in such a scenario.  

Basically, humans need different ecosystem services to survive. Mother Nature has given equal rights to every species for their survival, but we are creating difficulties for innocent species out there by increasing demands and turning the environment anthropocentric.

Whenever the dolphins are occasionally observed, people mistreat them and kill them. Lack of awareness is also a formidable challenge that piles more pressure on the dolphins’ habitat. GRDs have an equal right to exist as we do. However, our activities such as excessive fishing and using destructive fishing methods are playing a part in threatening GRDs. This highlights the need to rethink the harvesting strategy and timing so that we can create a win-win situation for both humans and GRDs.

Some efforts have been made for the conservation of the species.  In the international level, regulation of the trade of species has been envisioned by listing the species in appendix I of CITES. While in Nepal, GRDs have been prioritized for the conservation indicated by preparation of a dolphin conservation action plan (2021-2025). However, efforts from the government to implement that action plan are not so promising. Some efforts have been made by national and international conservation organizations such as WWF Nepal, which is working to create positive impacts by collaborating with fishermen and to release entangled dolphins from their fishnets. These efforts are not sufficient.

As GRDs are charismatic species of the freshwater ecosystem, the flipping/jumping skills of those species is amazing that every tourist can enjoy. Local communities are unaware of these protected species’ ecological role, who can diversify their livelihood by investing in ecotourism for the tourist. Tourists may visit that specific place in greater numbers during the period when GRDs are most frequently spotted. They would definitely love to gain real information about GRDs, which might help to spread conservation messages as well.

We have to address livelihood concerns of locals, whose actions would directly or indirectly affect the dolphins. The livelihood of the locals should be diversified to reduce dependency on fishing activities. Conservation knowledge should be improved from the grassroots. Research should be conducted to collect scientific information about its habitat range, population status and behavior, etc. Relevant action plans can be implemented only if we have enough information about particular species. Furthermore, collaboration between the stakeholders is highly essential. Together, we can create a safe environment for the threatened dolphin species.