Submit your Article

Sita Kumari Rai (62) of Salpa Silicho Rural Municipality-3 in Bhojpur reminisces how she used to collect lichens in the forests surrounding her village until about a decade ago. However, these days, lichens have become scarce in the forest, requiring a one-hour walk to reach the upper areas to find them. Rai attributes the disappearance of lichens to excessive collection and the deterioration of the conducive environment in the forest.

"Lichens grow only in very sunny and clean places. After vehicles started plying the roads through the forest some five or six years ago, lichens stopped growing there," says Bishnu Rai, another resident of Salpa Silicho.

The situation is similar in neighboring Sankhuwasabha. Jangmu Bhote (38) from Chepuwa finds it increasingly difficult to locate lichens compared to five or seven years ago. She, however, has no clear understanding of why lichens are gradually disappearing.

Gangaraj Rai (30) from Silichong Rural Municipality in Sankhuwasabha has observed unmanaged collection of lichens in his village. "There is a high demand for lichens in the Kiranti community. In the process of collecting lichens, trees are being cut down," he said.

Locals categorize lichens based on color and shape. The long whitish lichen, locally known as Bachha, is considered a male, and the brown lichen, known as Mimchha, a female.

The disappearance of lichens has become a matter of serious concern for the Kiranti people. Lichen is a vital ingredient in many Kiranti dishes. Sargemba, a popular cuisine made by mixing pork blood with lichens and other spices, is the identity of the Kirant community. The community fears that their cultural dish will disappear as lichens become scarce. "Our newer generation cannot enjoy lichen if its growing environment is damaged at this rate. Kiranti festivals will no longer be as vibrant," said Sita Kumari Rai (62).

According to experts, lichens are disappearing from forests due to over-extraction, forest destruction, road construction, settlement expansion, temperature rise, climate change, and pollution. Dr Chitra Bahadur Baniya, from the Central Department of Botany at Tribhuvan University, says lichens serve as bio-indicators. “As they are sensitive to pollution, they help scientists in studying pollution levels and mitigating its impact on ecosystems and human health,” he said.

Lichens consumed by indigenous communities grow only in a clean environment. While they were once found in lower areas, they are fast disappearing due to increased pollution and forest encroachment. Extreme weather events like droughts and heavy rainfall also hinder their growth, which is exceptionally slow at only 0.01 percent per year.

Lichens, being one of the oldest life forms on Earth, are influenced by soil, environmental conditions, climate, rain, and humidity. Lichens are a complex life form that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms, a fungus and an alga. They lack a protective outer layer, making them highly susceptible to environmental disturbances. Even slight changes in acidity or alkalinity can have an immediate impact on their growth.

The protection of lichens is considered crucial for ecology as they play a vital role in various ecosystem functions. They contribute to the food chain, provide habitat for animals and birds, protect plants from adverse conditions, and manage water and mineral cycles in the forest. Additionally, lichens enrich the soil by releasing essential nutrients as they rot.

According to Dr Baniya, 1,217 species of lichens have been identified in Nepal in altitudes ranging from 90 meters to 6,000 meters above sea level. Twenty-four of these species are indigenous to the country. However, the indigenous community consumes only five or six types of lichens. 

People in Nepal consume lichen varieties such as Heterodermia, Ramalina, Everniastrum cirrhatum, Parmotrema cetratum, Thamnolia, Usnea, and Foliose, which are found at altitudes ranging from 1,410 meters to 3,600 meters above sea level, according to Dr. Shiva Devkota, who is conducting a study on lichens. "My study has shown that these lichens are disappearing rapidly as they are unable to withstand unfavorable circumstances," he said.

Most of these species of lichen are found in the mid-hills region of Nepal. Since they cannot withstand pollution, indiscriminate road construction is contributing to their disappearance. "Even forests suitable for lichen growth are being encroached upon," Dr. Devkota added.

The Mid-Hills Highway, spanning 1,789 km across the breadth of Nepal, traverses the mid-hills region from Chiwa Bhanjyang in the east to Jhulagha in the west. Ratna Laxmi Bajracharya, senior divisional engineer of the Mid-Hills Highway Project Directorate, said that the construction of a seven-meter-wide road alone may not be the sole reason for the growing disappearance of lichens from forests. "We acknowledge that we have not been able to prioritize environmental management to the extent we would like due to financial constraints," she added. "We need a budget for environmental management equal to that allocated for road construction."

In his research paper, 'Indigenous Knowledge and Use of Lichen,' Dr. Devkota has stated that sensitive vegetation like lichens can disappear in the absence of proper care to the environment during road construction.

In 2011, the government banned lichen exports, citing excessive extraction and destruction of forest for lichen collection. Jangmu Bhote (38) of Chepuwa said that locals have been adversely affected by the government's decision. Small-time traders like Bhote, who collect lichens from forests and sell them to consuming communities, have been hit hard. "The local administration has tightened sales and distribution of lichens for the past three to four years," she said. "We now require prior approval for collection and have to pay as much as Rs 7,000 to take herbs to the market. Finding lichens in forests is also becoming increasingly difficult."

Dr. Devkota said that the government lacks statistics on lichens. The government does not have exact export data on lichens. However, the official publication of the Forest and Soil Conservation indicates that Nepal exported as much as 2,020 tons annually between 2000 and 2001, generating revenue of Rs 252.9m.

Although government studies show an annual trade of around 168 tons, Dr. Devkota believes that illegal trade could be much larger. Tanka Prasad Sharma, chairman of the Nepal Herbs Traders Federation, argued that there is no justification for the lichen export ban. According to Sharma, lichen collection used to exceed 1,000 tons annually before the ban in 2011.

After the ban, police have seized illegally exported lichens on several occasions. District Police Office, Banke, seized 3,141 kg of lichens being exported to India in 2014 and 2017. About 70 percent of the total lichen exports used to be from Banke district.

In March 2017, police seized 1,721 kg of lichens from a rice mill in Janaki Rural Municipality-3 of Kailali. In the same year, police arrested 1,125 kg of lichens from a rice mill in Nepalgunj Sub-metropolitan City. Likewise, an unattended cargo of 295 kg of lichens was found in March 2014. "These are data from past years, and we haven't made any arrests related to the illegal trade of lichens in recent years," said Narayan Dangi, the spokesperson for the District Police Office, Banke.

Badri Dhungana, the spokesperson for the Ministry of Forest and Environment, said the ministry lacks exact data on lichen exports. "Lichens seized by police may have been collected during the period when the ban was relaxed," he said.

Police have seized lichens being exported even when the ban wasn't relaxed. "Traders may be exporting lichens under the pretext of other medicinal herbs. Our customs lack sophisticated labs and a trained workforce to control such exports," he added.

While lichen collection in eastern Nepal is solely for consumption, collection in the western region is for trade, according to Dr. Devkota. Government data indicates that 20 species of lichens are being collected in Nepal. Even lichen varieties on the IUCN's red list, like Hypotrachyna, Everniastrum Nepalensis, Parmotrema, and Cirrhatum, have been collected in Nepal and are popular among the local populace.

Despite the importance of lichen in Nepal, responsible agencies such as the forest ministry, botany department, forest department, forest offices, and police provide inadequate responses to inquiries about lichen export. Surendra Adhikari, an officer at the Department of Forest, argued that there is no sense in banning lichen export. “All types of lichens are treated as one. When the ban was lifted, it applied to all varieties,” he said.

The government lifted the ban on lichen exports last year. Dhungana, the spokesperson for the ministry, stated that the new provision has lifted the ban on the collection, sale, and export of lichens. "Even when the ban was in place, authorities hadn’t prevented indigenous communities from collecting lichens for consumption purposes," he added.

Dr Devkota's research indicates that lifting the ban on lichen export negatively affects endangered species of lichens. He fears that this decision would have adverse effects on endangered species which are also tied to the culture and traditions of various indigenous people.

"The government shouldn't intervene in the traditional practices of indigenous communities," said Kamal Maden, a botanical expert. "Lichen collection in the eastern area is for consumption purposes, while collection in the western region is for trade purposes."

Maden called on the government to regulate exports while ensuring proper management of lichens, considering their traditional importance to indigenous communities.

Lack of research

Dr. Baniya pointed out that the government is not conducting or supporting research on lichens. He said that the government seems focused solely on revenue collection and not on environmental management.

Despite the significance of lichens, little has been done beyond identifying the species. If the current rate of lichen collection continues unchecked, it could lead to environmental imbalances, and numerous species could face extinction, say experts.

Forest ministry spokesperson Dhungana suggested that universities should take the initiative for research on the environmental impacts of lichens. “Research and study have never been a priority for the government due to resource constraints,” he said. “Even if funds are allocated, people will raise fingers claiming that financial resources are being misused.”

Endangered species

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) classify endangered species globally. Countries adhering to CITES must follow its rules and have the responsibility to protect flora and fauna on the red list categorized as endangered.

However, whether knowingly or unknowingly, the habitat of lichen species has been destroyed due to over-extraction, deforestation, and forest fragmentation. 

Dr Baniya said that lichens have been classified as endangered for conservation and protection. Dr Devkota said many lichen varieties, categorized as endangered, are being exported from Nepal without any hindrance.

Medicinal values

Pratiman Rai (71) from Salpa Silicho-3, Bhojpur, consumes lichens whenever he experiences body aches and diarrhea. “We consume lichens also during festivals like Dashain when meat consumption is high,” he added.

Shiwani Yonghang, a researcher at the Department of Microbiology at Tribhuvan University, conducted research on the medicinal value and scientific evidence of lichens consumed by various indigenous communities. She said that the Everniastrum Nepalensis variety of lichen consumed by different indigenous groups have antibacterial properties. 

“Other varieties like Everniastrum cirrhatum, Everniastrum Nepalensis, and Parmotrema cetratum have been employed as remedies for stomach problems, diabetes, whooping cough, tuberculosis, cancer, and skin diseases,” she said.

However, the Department of Drug Administration maintains that these uses have not been clinically proven yet. “We need sophisticated technology to ascertain medicinal values in lichens,” Yonghang added.

Experts say there is a huge demand for lichens outside the country due to their high nutritional values and antioxidant properties. Lichens, especially the Usnea variety, is used in various medicines to treat skin diseases, constipation, kidney problems, urinary diseases, and gynecological problems.

Experts have called for more research and studies on lichens by respecting the traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous communities. They also said that the government must regulate lichen export to prevent further destruction of its vegetation due to haphazard road construction in the name of development. 

Likewise, they say efforts should be made to eliminate unnecessary administrative hassles for local communities that have been using lichens for generations. Dr Devkota suggests educating them on proper collection methods, usage, and the importance of lichens.

Prepared with the support of the Earth Journalism Network of Internews

A recent study has revealed that approximately 20 percent of water sources in Nepal have vanished within the past year. The depletion of these vital resources has been attributed to a blend of climate change and human activities. This crisis not only poses a threat to the environment but is also unleashing a series of economic and social challenges that are affecting the most vulnerable sections of society.

An analysis of studies conducted by International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMO) and few other organizations shows there is a pressing need to immediately implement intervention measures to stop water sources from drying up. 

Madhav Prasad Dhakal, a watershed researcher with the ICIMOD said climate change and human activities share equal blame for the desiccation of our water sources. “Rising temperatures, fueled by climate change, and erratic rainfall patterns have disrupted the hydrological cycle, wreaking havoc on our water supplies,” he added.

While climate change shoulders a significant portion of the blame, experts assert that human activities are equally culpable. “Approximately 20 percent of the water sources that were thriving a decade ago have now vanished, and water flow has dwindled in roughly 50 percent of the sources,” Dhakal said. He further elaborated that during the dry season, from September to December, flow from watersheds and natural springs has plummeted, adversely affecting millions of mountain and hill residents who rely on these sources for their daily water needs.

About 10m people in the mountains and hills depend on natural springs for water. According to Dhakal, a natural spring supports around 20-25 households. There are several instances of people migrating due to drying up of water sources. “There were reports of such migration in Ramechhap, Bhojpur and Dailekh,” said Dhakal. “We are witnessing a shift from prolonged, gentle rainfall that allows water to trickle into groundwater and recharge our aquifers to intense, short bursts of rainfall that prevent proper recharge of our water table.”

Human activities such as mining, along with the protracted effects of low snowfall, have compounded the problem, causing ponds and natural springs to wither away. Likewise, natural springs near hydropower tunnels are also drying up, studies show. There are several instances of natural springs near hydropower tunnels drying up in Rasuwa.

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, development projects are beginning to allocate funds for water source rehabilitation. Dhakal stressed, “We don’t need complex scientific methods to revive old ponds; we simply need mechanisms that allow monsoon rains to trickle into the ground for four months.”

A study conducted by Sanot Adhikari and his team revealed that approximately 20-25 percent of water sources in the Karnali and Mid-Karnali Watersheds have dried up. Local residents are experiencing significant hardships due to the depletion of water sources in the Boktan, Lagam Karnali, Jhimruk, Rangun, and Mid-Karnali regions. These areas collectively have a total of 4,222 water sources. The water discharge from 70.7 percent of these sources is decreasing, while 1.57 percent of the watershed area has suffered destruction.

Variations in annual rainfall patterns also exert a significant impact on water resources each year. Unplanned construction of roads, the alteration of traditional lakes and ponds, the erection of walls, and the use of concrete and piping to divert springs have all contributed to the drying up of essential water sources. According to the study, if these trends of resource depletion persist at a rapid pace and if proactive conservation measures are not implemented, local communities may soon confront a severe crisis. The mid-hills region, in particular, could find itself grappling with extreme water scarcity.

Karishma Khadka, a springshed management associate with ICIMOD, highlighted the acute water shortages faced by communities in certain Himalayan catchment areas, particularly during the winter season. “Land use changes, rampant deforestation, hasty development projects, the depletion of traditional resources, and natural disasters have all taken a toll on our watershed,” she added.

As dependence on natural springs for daily water needs remains high, the communities residing in mid-hill and mountain areas bear the brunt of this crisis. A study by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has also indicated that those living in multidimensional poverty are at particularly high risk. Additionally, the Hindu Kush Himalaya region grapples with the dual challenge of excessive rainfall leading to floods and prolonged droughts. 

“Climate change is poised to impact both water availability and the very hydrological cycle that sustains our way of life,” Khadka added.

Mahalaxmi Baniya, a resident of Lalitpur Metropolitan City-26, has a tap water connection at her home but she depends on an underground well for her water needs, as the drinking water supply is unreliable. But that was until recently. These days Baniya pays money for tankers to bring water to her home, because her trusty well has dried up. Dilli Bahadur Bista, who has been digging wells to extract groundwater for households for the past 14 years, says the situation that Baniya is facing is common around Kathmandu Valley. "When I began this profession, we could get water just 15-20 feet underground. We now have to dig at least 40 feet to find water these days," he says.  "In higher areas, we have to dig 300-400 feet to find water.” Bista has observed the groundwater level decline by as much as 12 feet in a year. On average, he says one must go at least 100 feet deep to find water, even in low-lying parts of the valley like Duwakot, Imadol, and Thapathali. Another problem, he adds, is wells drying up within a few years. This has added to the water scarcity problem. Gyanendra Bahadur Karki, the deputy executive officer of Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Ltd (KUKL), says there is a significant difference between the rate of groundwater recharge and extraction. "The groundwater level is declining due to increased extraction, and it is a fact that we now have to dig deeper to access groundwater." The daily demand for drinking water in Kathmandu Valley is approximately 400m liters. KUKL distributes between 140m to 180m liters per day during the wet season, and around 80m liters during the dry season. The Melamchi Water Supply Project has been providing KUKL with 17m liters of water per day. Krishna Hari Budhathoki, the chief of KUKL’s electro-mechanical division, says there are no issues with deep wells that are more than 50 meters deep. It is the shallow wells that are drying up as a result of excessive extraction. “The groundwater level is not falling. We are simply extracting too much water.” He says the water level might have decreased by 2-4 meters for various reasons, while noting that  around 80 percent of tube wells that had dried up are back in operation following minor repairs. KUKL has 105 tube wells installed in different parts of the valley. Most of them have only been in operation for the past four-five years. Budhathoki says KUKL extracts 50-60m liters of groundwater every day, and these tube wells have a capacity of extracting 300-1,800 liters per minute. Madhukar Upadhayay, a watershed expert, also agrees that groundwater depletion in Kathmandu Valley is a result of unregulated extraction. “It has no correlation with climate change like many have conjectured.” Upadhayay says there is a possibility of shallow upper floor recharging if managed efficiently, which can allow water spouts and wells to produce water again. “The lower level cannot be recharged, though,” he adds. “We are currently extracting water from the lower level. Therefore, the only option we have is to reduce extraction.” Meanwhile, burgeoning construction activities that are heavily reliant on cement and concrete has led to the closing of the ground surface, which prevents water from trickling below the earth's surface to recharge the upper floor. Additionally, unplanned construction and development projects are causing rivers to dry up, and riverbeds to become hollow, further hindering the groundwater recharge process. A 2010 study conducted by Bishnu Prasad Pandey shows that the demand for water increased as the population exploded and the number of hotels grew in Kathmandu Valley. Between 1980 and 2000, the report states that groundwater levels declined by 1.3 to 3 meters annually in 9.6m cubic meters of land area. Similarly, groundwater levels declined by 1.38 to 7.5 meters between 2000 and 2008. Pandey warns if the relevant agencies do not take immediate action to develop groundwater, the environmental condition will deteriorate further. According to the Underground Water Resources Management Policy, 2069, tube wells are excessively used at both upper and lower levels (deep and shallow). Various establishments such as hotels, residential areas, apartments, industries, nursing homes, schools, business complexes, government and semi-government offices, and embassies have been extracting groundwater using deep tube wells. The policy highlights that the groundwater level in the valley is decreasing at an average rate of one meter per year; it is 2.5 meters per year in some places. As the groundwater reserve dries up, only 233 out of 389 community water spouts are supplying water, and about 30 percent of Kathmandu's wells are drying up. The policy stresses the need to prevent further depletion of underground aquifers, protect traditional sources of water such as streams and wells, and monitor groundwater extraction in Kathmandu Valley, which has a high population density and has a specific geographical and geological structure compared to other regions of the country. Dr Santosh Nepal, a climate change researcher at the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), has identified two main factors contributing to low groundwater recharge: the increasing use of cement in construction and changes in rainfall patterns. “The use of concrete in construction prevents rainwater from being absorbed into the land surface. Additionally, rapid urbanization has resulted in a decrease in natural land and open spaces, further reducing the recharge rate of groundwater,” he says. The other factor is changes in rainfall patterns. Nepal says Kathmandu Valley has been experiencing shorter but more intense rainfalls these days, compared to long, gentle drizzles of the past. “Rainwaters are unable to penetrate the ground during heavy rainfall events.” Data shows that 8.8bn cubic meters of water penetrates below the land surface annually. But only 22 percent of it can be utilized. Nepal emphasizes the need for comprehensive groundwater governance, including measures to preserve groundwater in certain areas. He also underlines the need to revive natural springs and to allocate specific areas for groundwater recharge. “There is also the need to identify areas outside the core area of Kathmandu where groundwater can be recharged and rainwater could be utilized more effectively,” he adds. Nepal recommends that the government introduce necessary laws and regulations for water conservation, as well as provision that requires setting aside free space while constructing residential houses. “There should also be a set of policies to encourage rainwater harvesting, and to make big consumers of water, such as hotels and hospitals, accountable.”

Over the past 11 months, 80 people lost their lives and 202 were injured in 236 lightning incidents, as reported by the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority. These incidents also affected 253 families and caused the loss of property worth tens of millions of rupees. Experts consider this a significant loss, especially given the size of the country. The data reveals that on average, 100 people lose their lives annually in lightning incidents over the past 11 years. Nepal is one of the three high-risk areas in the world for lightning due to its geographical location. Although lightning incidents are natural disasters, the lack of attention to the necessary precautions has increased the number of deaths and injuries, according to Dr Shreeram Sharma, a lightning expert. Sharma, who conducted a study on the risks of lightning and its impacts in 2021, stated that the risks of lightning increase by 10-12 percent for every one degree centigrade rise in temperature. "Lightning is also related to climate change," he added. Incidents of lightning typically begin in March. Since Sunday, most parts of Nepal have received rainfall, which has resulted in lightning and thunder. As a result, three people have been injured. Experts say that a few precautions can save many lives. However, the government has been criticized for not paying attention to this matter. There has not been a serious study or research conducted on this subject yet. In 2017, nine lightning sensor stations were established to issue alerts. However, these stations are currently non-functional. According to a government study, 1,135 people have lost their lives due to 2,661 lightning incidents since 2011. A total of 152 structures were damaged, while 2,474 livestock were killed. The loss of property due to these incidents has been estimated at Rs 88m. Despite this study, the government has not felt it necessary to introduce special programs to minimize the risks. Dr. Sharma believes that lightning incidents have been increasing in recent years due to climate change. “A long spell of thunder without rain can cause lightning. But there is a need for further studies and awareness campaigns,” he added. Lightning is a naturally occurring giant spark of electricity in the atmosphere. According to Dr. Sharma, the electricity in lightning is a thousand times more than the normal household supply. Lightning is more prevalent in southeastern Nepal and usually requires turbulence within the cloud. The turbulence is more pronounced in land/water interfaces. Along with southeastern Nepal, incidents of lightning are higher in Tripura of India, Bay of Bengal, and Bhutan. The lightning season typically starts from March and continues till August. Lightning is now the second leading cause of death in natural disasters worldwide after earthquakes. Incidents of lightning occur more frequently in the pre-monsoon and monsoon period and are more common in southern areas of the country. They are less common in hilly areas and virtually non-existent in the mountainous region. According to a study conducted by the Ministry of Home Affairs over a period of nine years, 930 people lost their lives due to lightning incidents during this period. In addition, 2,454 people were injured, with 50.8 percent of them being men. More incidents in developing countries Dr. Sharma's study shows lightning incidents result in numerous fatalities in developing countries. The lack of lightning-proof housing, offices, and vehicles exacerbates the damage caused by these incidents. Additionally, many people lack knowledge on what to do if lightning strikes them. The study emphasizes that due to the lack of effective emergency treatment services and disaster risk reduction programs, developing countries are more vulnerable to lightning incidents. The pre-monsoon season (April-June) sees numerous lightning occurrences. Studies indicate that over 100 incidents occur within a 15 km radius of the central and southeastern parts of the country each year. In the hilly region, lightning is more common in May, while in southern Tarai, the risk is higher in June. Many incidents occur in these areas during this period. Sensor stations not working According to Suman Kumar Regmi, spokesperson for the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, the government established 'Lightning Sensor Stations' at nine places in 2017. But these stations worked for only one and half years. Few of them are working partially. Regmi explained that without data from all stations, they won't be able to get a complete picture of lightning incidents. The stations were opened at Tumlingtar, Biratnagar, Simara, Bhairahawa, Kathmandu, Pokhara, Nepalganj, Surkhet, and Dhangadhi. "We have tried a lot to make all stations functional. We even consulted with the Meteorological Department of Finland on this matter, but it didn't help," he said. "The department's technical team is still trying to see if these stations can be brought back into operation." Regmi also explained that the department does not receive additional budget for research and that the budget for the department has actually been reduced. “Additional budget and manpower are needed for the monitoring of the sensor stations. Onsite monitoring requires more budget and workforce,” he said. “There are also frequency issues due to the operation of electronic devices nearby. Trained personnel are needed to deal with these issues.” ICIMOD’s toolkit The Weather Assessment Toolkit developed by the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in collaboration with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and NASA can predict lightning, rainfall, hail, and temperature in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and North India. "Anyone can visit the ICIMOD website and check the forecast for the next 54 hours. Not only is it easy to use, it can forecast weather down to the municipal level," he added. ICIMOD regularly monitors the use of the tool and educates relevant authorities on how to use it. The tool is also being developed into a mobile app. Bangladesh's Weather Forecasting Department is currently using the tool and broadcasting weather information through it, according to Shrestha.

Nepal has received only 11.6 mm of rain since the onset of winter until mid-January. By this time, the average rainfall should have been between 30.7 and 71.20 mm. The less amount of rainfall means that drought is imminent, and that's exactly what has happened. Data from the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology shows that eight winters have received less than average rainfall since 2000. Experts say that the lack of winter rains increases the risk of food insecurity. Sudarshan Humagain, a weather expert at the Hydrology Analysis Division at the department, said that only the Sudurpashchim and Karnali provinces and western parts of Lumbini have received rainfall this winter. Areas stretching from Gandaki Province to the east didn't receive any drop of rain at all. According to Humagain, the country received below-average rainfall in 2001, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2021. "We have seen drought in eight years since the turn of the new millennium. This is the first time since 2016 when some areas didn't receive any rainfall at all," Humagain said. "This can add a threat to food security and impact the ecosystem." Associate Professor at the Central Department of Hydrology and Meteorology at Tribhuvan University, Dr. Binod Pokharel, said winters are getting drier with every passing year. "The global climate model hints at heavy rains in the coming days. Our estimate is that there will be heavy rainfall in the monsoon and lower rainfall in winter," he added. Pokharel said there was heavy rainfall one year and low rainfall the other before 2000. "That is a regular process. Now the trend of heavy rainfall one year and not a single drop the next year is increasing," he added. According to him, rainfall variability is high, but rainfall volume is decreasing. Heavy rainfall triggers disasters, while the lack of winter rain increases food insecurity and affects the ecosystem and farm productivity. Data from the European Met Satellite shows the country received light rains between October 2020 and February 2021. Nepal received 28mm, 22mm, 17mm, 25mm, and 35mm in October, November, December, January, and February that year. That was below-average rainfall considering rainfall data between 1950 and 2021. A study showed in 2016 that low rains affected farm productivity by 87% in western parts of the country.  9.9% of people facing acute food insecurity A study conducted by Bhavadutta Sapkota of Patan Multiple College showed that famine and the threat of food insecurity are rising at an alarming pace. According to the study, only 42.2% of the population is in a food-secure situation round the year. Although people in urban areas have access to food, the problem is severe in hilly and mountainous regions. About 8.1% of the population is deprived in terms of daily calorie consumption and food security. According to the study, 9.9% are suffering from severe food insecurity. However, the situation in Nepal has improved from severe to moderate as per the World Hunger Index. The government has set a target of reducing the rate of food insecurity from 36% to 24% by 2025. Emphasis on adaptation Tika Bahadur Karki, Chief Senior Scientist of National Agricultural Research Center, Khumaltar, says that climate change is increasing the number of extraordinary events recently. “As the rainfall pattern has changed, adaptation methods should be prioritized to deal with such adverse conditions. We don't have strong research. Considering all these things, adaptation is imperative,” he added. Food production has decreased due to prolonged drought. Although the lack of rainfall doesn’t affect the mustard crop, some crops are completely destroyed. Production of crops like barley, wheat, and rye has come down by almost 50%, said Karki. Generally, 2,200 liters of water are required for one kilogram of wheat, 800 liters for one kilogram of maize, and 3,200 to 3,500 liters for a kilogram of paddy. Crops need a lot of water before flowering, during flowering, and during fruition. Farmers in some areas haven’t been able to plant their crops due to a lack of rainfall, while production has fallen in areas where crops have been planted. Adaptation is needed because the cropping season passes while farmers wait for rains. Lack of rain by mid-February will impact the food system and food production, according to Hari Krishna Uprety, former crop and horticulture director. Lack of snowfall affects mountain areas The lack of snowfall will affect apple production in mountain areas. Apple crops are affected if there isn’t sufficient chilling requirement during the flowering and fruiting season. The production of walnuts and other fruits will also be affected. Similarly, the lack of snowfall will impact the production of grass, which will, in turn, affect livestock production. While adaptation has been practiced in short-term crops, nothing has been done for the long-term so far, according to experts. “We need a long-term weather forecast. But we can only give a forecast of only three two days now,” he added. Barley production near zero According to Narakumar Chuhan, a researcher in food security at the Central Department of Rural Development, Tribhuvan University, the Himalayan region has seen a change in the eating habits of people. He said that when studying the situation in Makalu Rural Municipality of Sankhuwasabha 10 years ago and now, there is a difference in production. According to him, barley cultivation has come down to almost zero. Potatoes were seen as a major crop. However, there has been a decrease in potato production due to lack of snow, insect infestation, and non-fruiting. "Until 10 years ago, people from all over the district used to go to the Makalu region to buy potato seeds. Now they have to eat imported potatoes," said Chuhan. Due to the impacts of climate change, production of culturally important crops like proso millet, buckwheat, and lentils have dropped to zero. Instead of paddy, corn, millet, cardamom have taken 95 percent of the production area. Even cardamom plants have dried up in some places due to lack of rain. As a result, both production and prices of cardamom have decreased. What is happening in the weather system? According to Meteorologist Humagain, the La Nina climate pattern in the Pacific Ocean has reduced the activity of westerly winds which cause rainfall. Weathermen had forecast high temperatures and low rainfall before the winter began. Dr. Pokharel said there is no probability of winter rains yet. He said that it will be a bit cold, and there are chances of light snowfall on eastern hills till Wednesday, he added.

In August last year, the then Minister for Forest and Environment Pradeep Yadav had said that preparations were underway to declare a climate emergency. Since then, there has been a debate about its relevance. Concerned stakeholders have been expressing their concern. Dr Buddhi Paudel, Chief at Climate Change Management Division at the Ministry, said that concerned authorities have been analyzing the facts. He was of the opinion that work is being done in such a way that a climate emergency has been declared in the country. Paudel said that 18 countries have declared a climate emergency in the world. “Thirty-nine countries have declared a climate emergency at the district level. How are they working? How easy is it to bring climate finance with such work? These kinds of issues will be discussed,” he said. He was of the opinion that the government has no exact details about how many areas have been affected. Paudel said that that is the main problem. Climate change expert Ajay Dixit opined that the government should be clear on what basis and how long a climate emergency will be declared in which area. Expert Madhukar Upadhyay said that a crisis or emergency means that the problem is serious. He said that the seriousness has increased. “The government will declare a climate emergency anytime. The country needs help if the situation goes out of control,” he said. He said that a climate emergency can be declared immediately by formulating the policy. Upadhyay said that it will be easy to address the problems of climate change once the emergency is declared in the country. He, however, said that the government has no proper knowledge about the time to impose the emergency. He said that the time has still not come to declare a climate emergency in the country. “But, the emergency can be declared in the affected areas. The monsoon rain has been changing its pattern for the past few years. Some areas have been receiving light rainfall while some have been witnessing heavy rainfall,” he said. “Recently, the floods in Pakistan killed thousands of people and destroyed properties worth millions which was unbearable to the country. In that case, an emergency can be declared,” he said. He said that there is no point to impose an emergency only to get climate finance from the donors at the climate conference to be held in Egypt in November. Upadhyay said that Pakistan can declare an emergency for not less than 10 years as per the recent incident. “Because the lives of people should be saved. Source should be protected. It will take time to carry out reconstruction. Emergency can be declared by observing the situation,” he said. He further said that the process to claim climate finance is difficult. Dr Bimal Regmi, member of Environment and Climate Council, said that all the resources of the country should be focused once the emergency is declared. “We need evidence to make our decision strong. World politics should be in our hands. We need a strong basis,” he said. The then Minister Yadav had entrusted the Council with the work. He had said, “The incident of Pakistan has taught us a lesson. We have the same geography. We may face incidents like that of Pakistan.  Now, the emergency should be declared. There is no alternative.” “The government will work seriously and the world’s attention will also be drawn once the emergency is declared.” Minister Yadav was preparing to declare the emergency prior to COP 27. The government has recently removed Minister Yadav from his post. Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba has kept the ministry with himself.  

As transgender women, Nisha, 23, from Humla district, and Dilkumari, 22, from Dailekh district, were already dealing with considerable social stigma, multiple economic barriers, and denial of access to even basic services. The lives of the two temporary residents of Kathmandu has been made harder still by the Covid-19 pandemic. Here are the accounts of the hardships of these two women—as well as the community they represent—in their own words.

Dilkumari

My parents remind me that I have studied more than them and I thus know how to handle my sexual orientation. They also tell me not to kill my desires. Mindful of their support, I wanted to go back to my ancestral home after coronavirus gripped Kathmandu. But then I decided to stay back rather than face social stigma. Yet the transgenders have it though even in Kathmandu. I lost my job during the pandemic. I recently paid Rs 13,000 in rent by taking out a loan. How can I pay the rent when I don't even have enough to eat? Instead of helping us, the government asks us to produce our citizenship when we go to ask for pandemic relief. Just like me, many are transgenders in Kathmandu are suffering, and they don’t even where their next meal is coming from.

Nisha

Every day is hard. I was in my fourth year of college but I can’t attend classes anymore. I used to work as a social worker, but I have lost that job as well. I took out a small loan to survive but that too is running out. I am worried my landlord will kick me out as I don't know where the rent money is coming from. But I am not the only one struggling, many others are too. To survive, many have had to go back to sex work. It is hard to find clients in the pandemic and to be out late at night. The locals have started clamping down. They beat up one of my friends yesterday as she was moving around. We lived in pain during the previous lockdown, and the new one will bring us more misery.

LalitpurIn 1982, a 12th-century stone sculpture of Uma Maheshwor went miss­ing from Dhulikhel’s Wotol, Patan. The sculpture was found in Germany’s capital Berlin after three years after an art dealer had sold it to a Berlin museum for around Rs 10 million. The statue has since been repatriated and is now in Patan Museum (see photo, top). This recovered stone sculp­ture, with the portrayal of Shiva and Parvati shown sit­ting closely on Mount Kailash, is highly attractive.

Sandeep Khanal, chief of the monument conserva­tion and palace maintenance section of the Patan Durbar Square, says that the sculpture of Uma Maheshwor was the first to be formally returned to Nepal after its disappear­ance. “This sculpture was offi­cially returned in 2001. But other lost sculptures are still missing,” says Khanal. The process of return of the sculp­ture was initiated after Lain Singh Bangdel, an artist who served as the chancellor of Nepal Academy, published his book Stolen Images of Nepal in 1989.

Some other stolen statues mentioned in Bangdel’s book, and which were taken to var­ious places in Europe and the US, have also been returned since.

In the book, Bangdel cites many stolen sculptures of historical and archeological importance. For instance a 16th-century sculpture of Sit­ting Buddha was stolen from Patan’s Kumbeshwar Kunti­bahi Chaitya in April 1985. Another sculpture of the Sun God that was sculpted in 1083 was stolen in 1985 from Sau­gal in Patan. Bangdel also mentions yet another Uma Maheshwor’s statue from the 10th century going missing sometime in 1960s from Gahiti in Patan. None of these have been recovered.

In 2015, one of the stolen statues Bangdel mentions in his book, that of Lax­mi-Narayan, stolen from Kath­mandu Durbar Square in 1984, had surfaced in New York, and was later exhibited in various places in the US (see the photo collage above).